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No idea was more ingrained in the Jewish mind than the truth that God was a Savior, a Helper, a Deliverer, a Rescuer, a Defender, and a Preserver to his people. Their whole history was a history of salvation, and an unfolding of the nature and purposes of the Divine Being. Israel was a saved people (Deut 33:29); saved from Egypt (Ex 14:30), delivered from enemies on every side, preserved in prosperity, and restored from adversity \emdash all by that One Person whom they had been taught to call Jehovah. Though human instruments were constantly used as saviors \emdash as, for instance, the judges \emdash the people were always taught that it was God who saved by their hand (2 Sam 3:18; 2 Kings 13:5; 14:27; Neh 9:27), and that there was not power in man to be his own savior (Job 40:14; Ps 33:16; 44:3,7), so that he must look to God alone for help (Isa 43:11; 45:22; Hos 13:4,10). This the Scriptures express in varied forms, usually in phrases, in which the Hebrews rarely use concrete terms, as they are called, but often abstract terms. Thus, instead of saying, God saves them and protects them, they say, God is their salvation. So, a voice of salvation, tidings of salvation, a word of salvation, etc., is equivalent to a voice declaring deliverance, etc. Similarly, to work great salvation in Israel signifies to deliver Israel from some imminent danger, to obtain a great victory over enemies. Most of these phrases explain themselves, while others are of nearly equal facility of apprehension, e.g. the application of "the cup of salvation" to gratitude and joy for deliverance (Ps 106:13); the "rock of salvation" to a rock where any one takes refuge, and is in safety (2 Sam 22:47); "the LVALshield of salvation" and "helmet of salvation" to protection from the attack of an enemy (Ps 18:35; Isa 59:17); the "horn of salvation" to the power by which deliverance is effected (Ps 18:2); "the garments of salvation" to the beauty and protection of holiness (Isa 61:10); the "wells of salvation" to the abundant sources of the mercies of salvation, free, overflowing, and refreshing (Isa 12:3). See each of these associated terms in its alphabetical place.\par "When we come to inquire into the nature of this salvation thus drawn from God, and the conditions on which it was granted during the Old Test. dispensation, we learn that it implied every kind of assistance for body and soul, and that it was freely offered to God's people (Ps 28:9; 69:35); to the needy (Ps 72:4,13), to the meek (Ps 76:9), to the contrite (Ps 34:18), but not to the wicked (Ps 18:41) unless they repented and turned to him. Salvation consisted not only of deliverance from enemies, and from the snares of the wicked (Ps 37:40; 59:2; 106:20), but also of forgiveness (Ps 79:9), of answers to prayer (Ps 69:13), of spiritual gifts (Ps 68:19), of joy (Ps 51:12), of truth (Ps 25:5), and of righteousness (Ps 24:5; Isa 45:8; 46:13; 53:5). Many of the beautiful promises in Isaiah refer to an everlasting and spiritual salvation, and God described himself as coming to earth to bring salvation to his people (Isa 62:11; Zech 9:9). Thus was the way prepared for the coming of him who was to be called Jesus, because he should save his people from their sins. See MESSIAH.\par "In the New Testament the spiritual idea of salvation strongly predominates, though the idea of temporal deliverance occasionally appears. Perhaps the word restoration most clearly represents the great truth of the Gospel. The Son of God came to a lost world to restore those who would commit themselves unto him to that harmony with God which they had lost by sin. He appeared among men as the Restorer. Disease, hunger, mourning, and spiritual depression fled from before him. A.LVAL>ll the sufferings to which the human race is subject were overcome by him. Death itself, the last enemy, was vanquished; and in his own resurrection Christ proclaimed to all believers the glad tidings that God's purpose of bringing many sons unto glory was yet to be carried out. During his lifetime Jesus Christ was especially a healer and restorer of the body, and his ministrations were confined to the lost sheep of the house of Israel; but by his death for the sins of the whole world, and by his subsequent resurrection and exaltation, he was enabled to fulfil the mission for which he had taken our nature. He became generally the Savior of the lost. All who come to him are brought by him to God; they have spiritual life, forgiveness, and peace, and they are adopted into the family of God. Their bodies are made temples of the Holy Ghost, by whose inworking power Christ is formed within them. Their heart being purified by faith in him as the Son of God, they receive from him the gifts and graces of God, and thus they have an earnest of the final inheritance, the complete restoration, which is the object of every Christian's hope. If it be asked when a man is saved, the answer is that the new life which is implanted by faith in Christ is salvation in the germ, so that every believer is a saved man. But during the whole Christian life salvation is worked out, in proportion to our faith, which is the connecting link between the Savior and the saved \emdash the vine and the branches. Salvation in its completion is ready to be revealed' in the day of Christ's appearing, when he who is now justified by Christ's blood shall be saved from wrath through him, and when there shall be that complete restoration of body and soul which shall make us fit to dwell with God as his children for evermore." See SAVIOR.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par \par \par } :J{HK( X /  ^ 3 y F  P j 3 Ac@pApK}8 j-j9jJSACK, BRETHREN@."ISACK, AUGUST FRIEDRICH WILHELMdhNBHSACHSE, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH HEINRICH @ZNGSACHS, MICHAELh."FSACHS, MARCUSj@, ESACHS, HANS.h(DSACHEVERELL, HENRYV@6*CSACERDOTAL ORDERh2&BSACERDOTAL CONSECRATIONh@4ASACERDOTAL CITIESB@4(@SACERDOSX@"?SACER, GOTTFRIED WILHELM @B6>SACELLUM@"=SACELLIUS@$<SACELLANUS, THE GRAND@<0;SACCUS@:SACCOPHORI @&9SACCHINI, FRANCESCO@8,8SACCHI, ANDREA@."7SACAR@6SACAEA@5SABUREANS@$4SABTECHA@"3SABTAh2SABOTIERS @$1SABINIANUS@&0SABINA, POPPAEAvh0$/SABINAh.SABIN, ELIJAH ROBINSONh>2-SABIANSD)h ,SABI@+SABELLIUS:-h$*SABBATUM MAGNUM.@0$)SABBATISM\@$(SABBATINI, LUIGI ANTONIO@B6'SABBATINI, LORENZOF@6*&SABBATINI, ANDREA@4(%SABBATIER, PIERRE@4($SABBATICAL YEARΙh0$#SABBATIC RIVER@.""SABBATIANS@&!SABBATHAI ZEBI*h." SABBATH, JEWISHuh0$SABBATH, DAY AFTER THEsh>2SABBATH, COURT OF THE@]<0SABBATH, CHRISTIANch6*SABBATH DAY'S JOURNEY.@^h<0SABBATATI$@]$SABBATARIANS @\*SABBASZ@[SABBAN@[SABBAEUSb@Z"SABBA, ABRAHAM IBN-@Z8,SABAZIUS@Y"SABATUSZ@Y SABATNIKI @X$SABATAEAS@W$SABAT@TSABAOTH(Uh SABANUSz@T SABAI VERSION@P,  SABAEANSZ Qh" SABACHTHANI@P( SABA, MONASTERY OFL @O6* SABA-Lh SAALSCHTZ, JOSEPH LEVINTJhB6SAADIABOEhSAADHS(@DSA, MANOEL DEd@D, UNITARIANSBh&UNITARIANISMj+h*SOTERIOLOGYp)h(SAVIOR3hSALVATION/h$LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\ansicpg1252\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SAVIOR\par Savior\par a title applied in Scripture, in its highest sense, to Jesus Christ, but in a subordinate way to earthly deliverers. We present a comparatively brief abstract of this very extensive subject. See SOTERIOLOGY.\par I. The Word itself. \emdash The term "Savior," as applied to our Lord Jesus Christ, represents the Greek soter, which in turn represents certain derivatives from the Hebrew root yasha (<START HEBREW>uv^y*<END HEBREW>\par ), particularly the participle of the Hiphil form moshia (<START HEBREW>u^yv!om<END HEBREW>\par ), which is usually rendered "Savior" in the A.V. (e.g. Isa 46:15; 49:26). In considering the true import of "Savior," it is essential for us to examine the original terms answering to it, including in our view the use of soter in the Sept., whence it was more immediately derived by the writers of the New Test., and further noticing the cognate terms "to save" and "salvation," which express respectively the action and the results of the Savior"s office. See JESUS.\par 1. The term soter is of more frequent occurrence in the Sept. than the term "Savior" in the A.V. of the Old Test. It represents not only the word moshia above mentioned, but also very frequently the nouns yesha (<START HEBREW>uv^y#<END HEBREW>\par ) and yeshuah (<START HEBREW>hu*Wvy!<END HEBREW>\par ), which, though properly expressive of the abstract notion "salvation," are yet sometimes used in a concrete sense for "Savior." We may cite as an example Isa 52:11, "Behold, thy salvation cometh, his reward is with him," where evidently "salvation" = Savior. So again in passages where these terms are connected immediately with the person of the Godhead, as in Ps 58:20, "the God our Savior" (A.V. "God of our salvation"). Not only in such cases as these, but in many others where tLVALhe sense does not require it, the Sept. has soter where the A.V. has "salvation;" and thus the word "Savior" was more familiar to the ear of the reader of the Old Test. in our Lord"s age than it is to us.\par 2. The same observation holds good with regard to the verb <START GREEK>\par sw/zein<END GREEK>\par , and the substantive <START GREEK>\par swthri/a<END GREEK>\par , as used in the Sept. An examination of the passages in which they occur shows that they stand as equivalents for words conveying the notions of well being, succor, peace, and the like. We have further to notice <START GREEK>\par swthri/a<END GREEK>\par in the sense of recovery of the bodily health (2 Macc 3:32), together with the etymological connection supposed to exist between the terms <START GREEK>\par swth/r<END GREEK>\par and <START GREEK>\par sw=ma<END GREEK>\par , to which Paul evidently alludes in Eph 5:23; Phil 3:20,21.\par 3. If we turn to the Hebrew terms, we cannot fail to be struck with their comprehensiveness. Our verb "to save" implies, in its ordinary sense, the rescue of a person from actual or impending danger. This is undoubtedly included in the Hebrew root yasha, and may be said to be its ordinary sense, as testified by the frequent accompaniment of the preposition min (<START HEBREW>/m!<END HEBREW>\par comp. the <START GREEK>\par sw/sei a)po/<END GREEK>\par which the angel gives in explanation of the name Jesus, Matt 1:21). But yasha, beyond this, expresses assistance and protection of every kind \emdash assistance in aggressive measures, protection against attack; and, in a secondary sense, the results of such assistance victory, safety, prosperity, and happiness. We may, cite as an instance of the aggressive sense, Deut 20:4, "To fight for you against your enemies, to save you;" of protection against attack, Isa 26:1," Salvation will God appoint for walls and bulwarks;" of victory, 2 Sam 8:6, "The Lord preserved David," i.e. gave him victory; of prosperity and happiness, Isa 60:18, "Thou shLVALalt call thy walls Salvation;" Isa 56:10, "He hath clothed me with the garments of salvation." No better instance of this last sense can be adduced than the exclamation "Hosanna," meaning,"( Save, I beseech thee," which was uttered as a prayer for God's blessing on any joyous occasion (Ps 118:25), as at our Lord's entry into Jerusalem, when the etymological connection of the terms Hosanna and Jesus could not have been lost on the ear of the Hebrew (Matt 21:9,15). It thus appears that the Hebrew and Greek terms had their positive as well as their negative side; in other words, that they expressed the presence of blessing as well as the absence of danger, actual security as well as the removal of insecurity. The Latin language possessed in the classical period no proper equivalent for the Greek <START GREEK>\par swth/r<END GREEK>\par . This appears from the introduction of the Greek word itself in a Latinized form, and from Cicero"s remark (in Verr. Acts 2:2, 63) that there was no one word which expressed the notion qui salutem dedit. Tacitus (Ann. 15, 71) uses conservator, and Pliny (22, 5) servator. The term salvator appears appended as a title of Jupiter in an inscription of the age of Trajan (Gruter, p. 19, No. 5). This was adopted by Christian writers as the most adequate equivalent for <START GREEK>\par swth/r<END GREEK>\par , though objections were evidently raised against it (Augustine, Serm. 299, \'a7 6). Another term, salutificator, was occasionally used by Tertullian (De Resurr. Carn. 47; De Carn. Chr. 14).\par 4. The historical personages to whom the terms are applied further illustrate this view. The judges are styled "saviors," as having rescued their country from a state of bondage (Judg 3:9,15, A.V. "deliverer;" Neh 9:27); a "savior" was subsequently raised up in the person of Jeroboam II to deliver Israel from the Syrians (2 Kings 13:5); and in the same sense Josephus styles the deliverance from Egypt a "salvation" (Ant. 3, 1, 1). Joshua, on the other hand, verified the promise conLVALtained in his name by his conquests over the Canaanites: the Lord was his helper in an aggressive sense. Similarly, the office of the "saviors" promised in Obad 21 was to execute vengeance on Edom. The names Isaiah, Jeshua, Ishi, Hosea, Hoshea, and, lastly, Jesus, are all expressive of the general idea of assistance from the Lord. The Greek soter was in a similar manner applied in the double sense of a deliverer from foreign foes, as in the case of Ptolemy Soter, and a general protector, as in the numerous instances where it was appended as the title of heathen deities.\par 5. There are many indications in the Old Test. that the idea of a spiritual salvation, to be effected by God alone, was by no means foreign to the mind of the pious Hebrew. In the Psalms there are numerous petitions to God to save from the effects of sin (e.g. Ps 39:8; 79:9). Isaiah, in particular, appropriates the term "savior" to Jehovah (Isa 43:11), and connects it with the notions of justice and righteousness (Isa 45:21; 55:16, 17): he adduces it as the special manner in which Jehovah reveals himself to man (Isa 45:15): he hints at the means to be adopted for effecting salvation in passages where he connects the term "savior" with "redeemer" (goal), as in Isa 41:14; 49:26; 55:16, and again with "ransom," as in 43:3. Similar notices are scattered over the prophetical books (e.g. Zech 9:9; Hos 1:7), and though in many instances these notices admitted of a reference to proximate events of a temporal nature, they evidently looked to higher things, and thus fostered in the mind of the Hebrew the idea of a "Savior" who should far surpass in his achievements the "saviors" that had as yet appeared. The mere sound of the word would conjure up before his imagination visions of deliverance, security, peace, and prosperity.\par II. The Work of the Savior. \emdash This we propose to trace as developed in the several portions of the New Testament. . \par 1. The first three evangelists, as we know, agree in showing that Jesus unfolded hisLVAL message to the disciples by degrees. He wrought the miracles that were to be the credentials of the Messiah; he laid down the great principles of the Gospel morality, until he had established in the minds of the Twelve the conviction that he was the Christ of God. Then, as the clouds of doom grew darker, and the malice of the Jews became more intense, he turned a new page in his teaching. Drawing from his disciples the confession of their faith in him as Christ, he then passed abruptly, so to speak, to the truth that remained to be learned in the last few months of his ministry, that his work included suffering as well as teaching (Matt 16:20,21). He was instant in pressing this unpalatable doctrine home to his disciples from this time to the end. Four occasions when he prophesied his bitter death are on record, and they are probably only examples out of many more (ver. 21). We grant that in none of these places does the word "sacrifice" occur; and that the mode of speaking is somewhat obscure, as addressed to minds unprepared, even then, to bear the full weight of a doctrine so repugnant to their hopes. But that he must (<START GREEK>\par dei=<END GREEK>\par ) go and meet death; that the powers of sin and of this world are let loose against him for a time, so that he shall be betrayed to the Jews, rejected, delivered by them to the Gentiles, and by them be mocked and scourged, crucified, and slain; and that all this shall be done to achieve a foreseen work, and accomplish all things written of him by the prophets \emdash these we do certainly find. They invest the death of Jesus with a peculiar significance; they set the mind inquiring what the meaning can be of this hard necessity that is laid on him. For the answer we look to other places; but at least there is here no contradiction to the doctrine of sacrifice, though the Lord does not yet say, "I bear the wrath of God against your sins in your stead; I become a curse for you." Of the two sides of this mysterious doctrine \emdash that Jesus dLVALies for us willingly, and that" he dies to bear a doom laid on him as of necessity, because some one must bear it \emdash it is the latter side that is made prominent. In all the passages it pleases Jesus to speak, not of his desire to die, but of the burden laid on him, and the power given to others against him.\par 2. Had the doctrine been explained no further, there would have been much to wait for. But the series of announcements in these passages leads up to one more definite and complete. It cannot he denied that the words of the institution of the Lord"s supper speak most distinctly of a sacrifice: "Drink ye all of this, for this is my blood of the new covenant;" or, to follow Luke, "the new covenant in my blood." We are carried back by these words to the first covenant, to the altar with twelve pillars, and the burned offerings and peace offerings of oxen, and the blood of the victims sprinkled on the altar and on the people, and the words of Moses as he sprinkled it: "Behold the blood of the covenant which the Lord hath made with you concerning all these words" (Ex 24). No interpreter has ever failed to draw from these passages the true meaning: "When my sacrifice is accomplished, my blood shall be the sanction of the new covenant." The word "sacrifice" is wanting; but sacrifice, and nothing else, is described. And the words are no mere figure used for illustration, and laid aside when they have served that turn. "Do this in remembrance of me." They are the words in which the Church is to interpret the act of Jesus to the end of time. They are reproduced exactly by Paul (1 Cor 11:25). Then, as now, Christians met together, and by a solemn act declared that they counted the blood of Jesus as a sacrifice wherein a new covenant was sealed; and of the blood of that sacrifice they partook by faith, professing themselves thereby willing to enter the covenant and be sprinkled with the blood.\par 3. So far we have examined the three "synoptic" Gospels. They follow a historical order. In the early LVALchapters of all three the doctrine of our Lord"s sacrifice is not found, because he will first answer the question about himself, "Who is this?" before he shows them "What is his work." But at length the announcement is made, enforced, repeated; until, when the feet of the betrayer are ready for their wicked errand, a command is given which secures that the death of Jesus shall be described forever as a sacrifice and nothing else, sealing a new covenant and carrying good to many. Lest the doctrine of atonement should seem to be an after thought, as, indeed, De Wette has tried to represent it, John preserves the conversation with Nicodemus, which took place early in the ministry; and there, under the figure of the brazen serpent lifted up, the atoning virtue of the Lord"s death is fully set forth. "As Moses lifted up the serpent in the wilderness, even so must the Son of Man be lifted up; that whosoever believeth in him should not perish, but have eternal life" (John 3:14,15). As in this intercessory act the image pf the deadly, hateful, and accursed (Gen 3:14,15) reptile became by God"s decree the means of health to all who looked on it earnestly, so does Jesus in the form of sinful man, of a deceiver of the people (Matt 27:63), of Antichrist (12:24; John 18:33), of one accursed (Gal 3:13), become the means of our salvation; so that whoever fastens the earnest gaze of faith on him shall not perish, but have eternal life. There is even a significance in the words "lifted up;" the Lord used, probably, the word <START HEBREW>[qd<END HEBREW>\par , which, in older Hebrew, meant to "lift up" in the widest sense, but began in the Aramaic to have the restricted meaning of "lifting up for punishment." With Christ the lifting up was a seeming disgrace, a true triumph and elevation. But the context in which these verses occur is as important as the verses themselves. Nicodemus comes as an inquirer; he is told that a man must be born again, and then he is directed to the death of Jesus as the means of that regenLVALeration. The earnest gaze of the wounded soul is to be the condition of its cure; and that gaze is to be turned, not to Jesus on the mountain or in the temple, but on the cross. This, then, is no passing allusion, but it is the substance of the Christian teaching addressed to an earnest seeker after truth.\par Another passage claims a reverent attention \emdash "If any man eat of this bread, he shall live forever: and the bread that I will give is my flesh, which I will give for the life of the world" (John 6:51). He is the bread; and he will give the bread. If his presence on earth were the expected food, it was given already; but would he speak of "drinking his blood" (ver. 53), which can only refer to the dead? It is on the cross that he will afford this food to his disciples. We grant that this whole passage has occasioned as much disputing among Christian commentators as it did among the Jews who heard it; and for the same reason \emdash for the hardness of the saying. But there stands the saying; and no candid person can refuse to see a reference in it to the death of him that speaks.\par In that discourse, which has well been called the prayer of consecration offered by our High priest, there is another passage which cannot be alleged as evidence to one who thinks that any word applied by Jesus to his disciples and himself must bear in both cases precisely the same sense, but which is really pertinent to this inquiry \emdash "Sanctify them through thy truth: thy word is truth. As thou hast sent me into the world, even so have I also sent them into the world. And for their sakes I sanctify myself that they also might be sanctified through the truth" (John 17:17-19). The word <START GREEK>\par a(gia/zein<END GREEK>\par , "sanctify," "consecrate," is used in the Sept. for the offering of sacrifice (Lev 22:2) and for the dedication of a man to the divine service (Num 3:15). Here the present tense, "I consecrate," used in a discourse in which our Lord says he is "no more in the world," is conLVALclusive against the interpretation "I dedicate my life to thee;" for life is over. No self dedication, except that by death, can now be spoken of as present. "I dedicate myself to thee, in my death, that these may be a people consecrated to thee;" such is the great thought in this sublime passage, which suits well with his other declaration that the blood of his sacrifice sprinkles them for a new covenant with God. To the great majority of expositors from Chrysostom and Cyril the doctrine of reconciliation through the death of Jesus is asserted in these verses.\par The Redeemer has already described himself as the Good Shepherd who lays down his life for the sheep (John 10:11,17,18), taking care to distinguish his death from that of one who dies against his will in striving to compass some other aim \emdash "Therefore doth my Father love me, because I lay down my life that I might take it again. No man taketh it from me, but I lay it down of myself. I have power to lay it down, and I have power to take it again."\par Other passages that relate to his death will occur to the memory of any Bible reader. The corn of wheat that dies in the ground to bear much fruit (John 10:24) is explained by his own words elsewhere, where he says that he came "to minister, and to give his life a ransom for many" (Matt 20:28).\par 4. Thus, then, speaks Jesus of himself. What say his witnesses of him? "Behold the Lamb of God," says the Baptist, "which taketh away the sin of the world" (John 1:29). Commentators differ about the allusion implied in that name. But take any one of their opinions, and a sacrifice is implied. Is it the paschal lamb that is referred to? Is it the lamb of the daily sacrifice? Either way the death of the victim is brought before us. But the allusion, in all probability, is to the well known prophecy of Isaiah (ch. 54), to the Lamb brought to the slaughter, who bore our griefs and carried our sorrows. See this passage discussed fully in the notes of Meyer, Lange (Bibelwerke), and Alford. \emdasLVALh The reference to the paschal lamb finds favor with Grotius and others; the reference to Isaiah is approved by Chrysostom and many others. The taking away of sin (<START GREEK>\par ai&rein<END GREEK>\par ) of the Baptist, and the bearing it (<START GREEK>\par fe/rein<END GREEK>\par , Sept.) of Isaiah, have one meaning and answer to the Hebrew word <START HEBREW>ac*n*<END HEBREW>\par . To take the sins on himself is to remove them from the sinners; and how can this be through his death except in the way of expiation by that death itself?\par 5. The apostles, after the resurrection, preach no moral system, but a belief in and love of Christ, the crucified and risen Lord, through whom, if they repent, men shall obtain salvation. This was Peter"s preaching on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2); and he appealed boldly to the prophets on the ground of an expectation of a suffering Messiah (3:18). Philip traced out for the eunuch, in that picture of suffering holiness in the well known chapter of Isaiah, the lineaments of Jesus of Nazareth (Acts 8; Isa 53:1). The first sermon to a Gentile household proclaimed Christ slain and risen, and added "that through his name whosoever believeth in him shall receive remission of sins" (Acts 10). Paul at Antioch preaches "a Savior Jesus" (Acts 13:23); "through this Man is preached unto you the forgiveness of sins. and by him all that believe are justified from all things from which ye could not be justified by the law of Moses" (ver. 38,39). At Thessalonica all that we learn of this apostle"s preaching is "that Christ must needs have suffered and risen again from the dead; and that this Jesus, whom I preach unto you, is Christ" (Acts 17:3). Before Agrippa he declared that he had preached always "that Christ should suffer, and that he should be the first that should rise from the dead" (Acts 26:23); and it was this declaration that convinced his royal hearer that he was a crazed fanatic. The account of the first founding of the Church in the Acts of the Apostles is cLVAL oncise and fragmentary; and sometimes we have hardly any means of judging what place the sufferings of Jesus held in the teaching of the apostles; but when we read that they "preached Jesus," or the like, it is only fair to infer from other passages that the cross of Christ was never concealed, whether Jews or Greeks or barbarians were the listeners. And this very pertinacity shows how much weight they attached to the facts of the life of our Lord. They did not merely repeat in each new place the pure morality of Jesus as he uttered it in the Sermon on the Mount: of such lessons we have no record. They took in their hands, as the strongest weapon, the fact that a certain Jew crucified afar off in Jerusalem was the Son of God, who had died to save men from their sins; and they offered to all alike an interest, through faith, in the resurrection from the dead of this outcast of his own people. No wonder that Jews and Greeks, judging in their worldly way, thought this strain of preaching came of folly or madness, and turned from what they thought unmeaning jargon.\par 6. We are able to complete from the epistles our account of the teaching of the apostles on the doctrine of atonement. "The Man Christ Jesus" is the mediator between God and man, for in him the human nature, in its sinless purity, is lifted up to the divine, so that he, exempt from guilt, can plead for the guilty (1 Tim 2:5; 1 John 2:1,2; Heb 7:25). Thus he is the second Adam that shall redeem the sin of the first; the interests of men are bound up in him, since he has power to take them all into himself (Eph 5:29,30; Rom 5:12,17; 12:5; 1 Cor 15:22). This salvation was provided by the Father, to "reconcile us to himself" (2 Cor 5:18), to whom the name of "Savior" thus belongs (Luke 1:47); and our redemption is a signal proof of the love of God to us (1 John 4:10). Not less is it a proof of the love of Jesus, since he freely lays down his life for us \emdash offers it as a precious gift, capable of purchasing all the lost (1 Tim 2:6; TitusLVAL! 2:14; Eph 1:7; comp. Matt 20:28). But there is another side of the truth more painful to our natural reason. How came this exhibition of divine love to be needed? Because wrath had already gone out against man. The clouds of God's anger gathered thick over the whole human race; they discharged themselves on Jesus only. God has made him to be sin for us who knew no sin (2 Cor 5:21); he is made "a curse" (a thing accursed) for us that the curse that hangs over us may be removed (Gal 3:13); he bore our sins in his own body on the tree (1 Peter 2:24). There are those who would see on the page of the Bible only the sunshine of the divine love; but the muttering thunders of divine wrath against sin are heard there also; and he who alone was no child of wrath meets the shock of the thunderstorm, becomes a curse for us and a vessel of wrath; and the rays of love break out of that thunder gloom and shine on the bowed head of him who hangs on the cross, dead for our sins.\par 7. We have spoken, and advisedly, as if the New Test. were, as to this doctrine, one book in harmony with itself. That there are in the New Test. different types of the one true doctrine may be admitted without peril to the doctrine. The principal types are four in number.\par (1.) In the Epistle of James there is a remarkable absence of all explanations of the doctrine of the atonement; but this admission does not amount to so much as may at first appear. True, the keynote of the epistle is that the Gospel is the law made perfect, and that it is a practical moral system in which man finds himself free to keep the divine law. But with him Christ is no mere lawgiver appointed to impart the Jewish system. He knows that Elias is a man like himself, but of the person of Christ he speaks in a different spirit. He calls himself "a servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ." who is "the Lord of glory." He speaks of the Word of Truth of which Jesus has been the utterer. He knows that faith in the Lord of glory is inconsistent with time servinLVAL"g and "respect of persons" (James 1:1,18; 2:1). "There is one lawgiver," he says," who is able to save and to destroy" (4:12); and this refers, no doubt, to Jesus, whose second coming he holds up as a motive to obedience (5:7-9). These and like expressions remove this epistle far out of the sphere of Ebionitish teaching. The inspired writer sees the Savior, in the Father"s glory, preparing to return to judge the quick and dead. He puts forth Christ as prophet and king, for he makes him teacher and judge of the world; but the office of the priest he does not dwell on. Far be it from us to say that he knows it not. Something must have taken place before he could treat his hearers with confidence, as free creatures able to resist temptations, and even to meet temptations with joy. He treats "your faith" as something founded already, not to be prepared by this epistle (1:2,3,21). His purpose is a purely practical one. There is no intention to unfold a Christology such as that which makes the Epistle to the Romans so valuable. Assuming that Jesus has manifested himself and begotten anew the human race, he seeks to make them pray with undivided hearts, and be considerate to the poor, and strive with lusts, for which they, and not God, are responsible; and bridle their tongues, and show their fruits by their works (see Neander, Pflanzung, b. 6, c. 3; Schmid, Theologie des N.T. pt. 2; and Dorner, Christologie, 1, 95).\par (2.) In the teaching of Peter the doctrine of the person of our Lord is connected strictly with that of his work as Savior and Messiah. The frequent mention of his sufferings shows the prominent place he would give them; and he puts forward as the ground of his own right to teach that he was "a witness of the sufferings of Christ" (1 Peter 5:1). The atoning virtue of those sufferings he dwells on with peculiar emphasis, and not less so on the purifying influence of the atonement on the hearts of believers. He repeats again and again that Christ died for us (2:21; 3:18; 4:1); that he bare ouLVAL#r sins in his own body on the tree (2:24). He bare them; and what does this phrase suggest but the goat that "shall bear" the iniquities of the people off into the land that was not inhabited? (Lev 16:22), or else the feeling the consequences of sin, as the word is used elsewhere (20:17,19)? We have to choose between the cognate ideas of sacrifice and substitution. Closely allied with these statements are those which connect moral reformation with the death of Jesus. He bare our sins that we might live unto righteousness. His death is our life. We are not to be content with a self-satisfied contemplation of our redeemed state, but to live a life worthy of it (1 Peter 2:21-25; 3:15-18). In these passages the whole Gospel is contained; we are justified by the death of Jesus, who bore our sins that we might be sanctified and renewed to a life of godliness. And from this apostle we hear again the name of "the lamb," as well as from John the Baptist; and the passage of Isaiah comes back upon us with unmistakable clearness. We are redeemed "with the precious blood of Christ, as of a lamb without blemish and without spot" (1:18,19, with Isa 53:7). Every word carries us back to the Old Test. and its sacrificial system: the spotless victim, the release from sin by its blood (elsewhere [1 Peter 1:2] by the sprinkling of its blood), are here; not the type and shadow, but the truth of them; not a ceremonial purgation, but an effectual reconcilement of man and God.\par (3.) In the inspired writings of John we are struck at once with the emphatic statements as to the divine and human natures of Christ. A right belief in the incarnation is the test of a Christian man (1 John 4:2; John 1:14; 2 John 7); we must believe that Jesus' Christ is come in the flesh, and that he is manifested to destroy the works of the devil (1 John 3:8). And, on the other hand, he who has come in the flesh is the one who alone has been in the bosom of the Father, seen the things that human eyes have never seen, and has come to de dare themLVAL$ unto us (1:2; 4:14; John 1:14-18). This person, at once divine and human, is "the propitiation for our sins," our advocate with the Father," sent into the world "that we might live through him;" and the means was his laying down his life for us, which should make us ready to lay down our lives for the brethren (1 John 1:7; 2:1,2; 3:16; 4:9,10; 5:6,11-13; John 11:51). And the moral effect of his redemption is that "the blood of Jesus Christ cleanseth us from all sin" (1 John 1:7). The intimate connection between his work and our holiness is the main subject of his first epistle, "Whosoever is born of God doth not commit sin (1 John 3:9). As with Peter, so with John; every point of the doctrine of the atonement comes out with abundant clearness. The substitution of another, who can bear our sins, for us who cannot; the sufferings and death as the means of our redemption, our justification thereby and our progress in holiness as the result of our justification.\par (4.) To follow out as fully, in the more voluminous writings of Paul, the passages that speak of our salvation would far transgress the limits of our paper. Man, according to this apostle, is a transgressor of the law. His conscience tells him that he cannot act up to that law, which, the same conscience admits, is divine, and binding upon him. Through the old dispensations man remained in this condition. Even the law of Moses could not justify him it only by its strict behests held up a mirror to conscience that its frailness might be seen. Christ came, sent by the mercy of our Father who had never forgotten us; given to, not deserved by us. He came to reconcile men and God by dying on the cross for them, and bearing their punishment in their stead (2 Cor 5:14-21; Rom 5:6-8). He is "a propitiation through faith in his blood" (3:25,26; comp. Lev 16:15) (<START GREEK>\par i(lasth/reion<END GREEK>\par means "victim for expiation") \emdash words which most people will find unintelligible, except in reference to the Old Test. and its sacrifiLVAL%ces. He is the ransom, or price paid, for the redemption of man from all iniquity (Titus 2:14). Still stronger in 1 Tim 2:6, "ransom instead of (<START GREEK>\par a)nti/lutron<END GREEK>\par ); also Eph 1:7 (<START GREEK>\par a)polu/trwsi$<END GREEK>\par ); 1 Cor 6:20; 7:23. The wrath of God was against man, but it did not fall on man. God made his Son "to be sin for us," though he knew no sin; and Jesus suffered, though men had sinned. By this act God and man were reconciled (Rom 5:10; 2 Cor 5:18-20; Eph 2:16; Col 1:21). On the side of man, trust and love and hope take the place of fear and of an evil conscience; on the side of God, that terrible wrath of his, which is revealed from heaven against all ungodliness and unrighteousness of men, is turned away (Rom 1:18; 5:9; 1 Thess 1:10). The question whether we are reconciled to God only, or God is also reconciled to us, might be discussed on deep metaphysical grounds; but we purposely leave that on one side, content to show that at all events the intention of God to punish man is averted by this "propitiation" and "reconcilement." See RECONCILIATION.\par Different views are held about the authorship of the Epistle to the Hebrews by modern critics, but its numerous points of contact with the other epistles of Paul must be recognized. In both the incompleteness of Judaism is dwelt on; redemption from sin and guilt is what religion has to do for men, and this the law failed to secure. In both, reconciliation and forgiveness and a new moral power in the believers are the fruits of the work of Jesus. In the Epistle to the Romans, Paul shows that the law failed to justify, and that faith in the blood of Jesus must be the ground of justification. In the Epistle to the Hebrews the same result follows from an argument rather different: all that the Jewish system aimed to do is accomplished in Christ in a far more perfect manner. The Gospel has a better priest, more effectual sacrifices, a more profound peace. In the one epistle the law seems set aside whoLVAL&lly for the system of faith; in the other the law is exalted and glorified in its Gospel shape; but the aim is precisely the same \emdash to show the weakness of the law and the effectual fruit of the Gospel.\par 8. We are now in a position to see how far the teaching of the New Test. on the effects of the death of Jesus is continuous and uniform. Are the declarations of our Lord about himself the same as those of James and Peter, John and Paul? and are those of the apostles consistent with each other? The several points of this mysterious transaction may be thus roughly described:\par (1.) God sent his Son into the world to redeem lost and ruined men from sin and death, and the Son willingly took upon him the form of a servant for this purpose; and thus the Father and the Son manifested their love for us.\par (2.) God the Father laid upon his Son the weight of the sins of the whole world, so that he bare in his own body the wrath which men must else have borne, because there was no other way of escape for them; and thus the atonement was a manifestation of divine justice.\par (3.) The effect of the atonement thus wrought is that man is placed in a new position, freed from the dominion of sin, and able to follow holiness; and thus the doctrine of the atonement ought to work in all the hearers a sense of love, of obedience, and of self sacrifice.\par In shorter words, the sacrifice of the death of Christ is a proof of divine love and of divine justice, and is for us a document of obedience. \par Of the four great writers of the New Test., Peter, Paul, and John set forth every one of these points. Peter, the "witness of the sufferings of Christ," tells us that we are redeemed with the blood of Jesus, as of a lamb without blemish and without spot; says that Christ bare our sins in his own body on the tree. If we "have tasted that the Lord is gracious" (1 Peter 2:3), we must not rest satisfied with a contemplation of our redeemed state, but must live a life worthy of it. No one can well doubt, who LVAL'reads the two epistles, that the love of God and Christ, and the justice of God, and the duties thereby laid on us, all have their value in them; but the love is less dwelt on than the justice, while the most prominent idea of all is the moral and practical working of the cross of Christ upon the lives of men.\par With John, again, all three points find place. That Jesus willingly laid down his life for us, and is an advocate with the Father; that he is also the propitiation, the suffering sacrifice, for our sins; and that the blood of Jesus Christ cleanseth us from all sin, for that whoever is born of God doth not commit sin \emdash all are put forward. The death of Christ is both justice and love, both a propitiation and an act of loving self surrender; but the moral effect upon us is more prominent even than these.\par In the epistles of Paul the three elements are all present. In such expressions as a ransom, a propitiation, who was "made sin for us," the wrath of God against sin, and the mode in which it was turned away, are presented to us. Yet not wrath alone. "The love of Christ constraineth us; because we thus judge that if one died for all, then were all dead: and that he died for all, that they which live should not henceforth live unto themselves, but unto him which died for them and rose again" (2 Cor 5:14,15). Love in him begets love in us, and in our reconciled state the holiness which we could not practice before becomes easy.\par The reasons for not finding in James similar evidence we have spoken of already.\par Now, in which of these points is there the semblance of contradiction between the apostles and their Master? In none of them. In the gospels, as in the epistles, Jesus is held up as the sacrifice and victim, draining a cup from which his human nature shrank, feeling in himself a sense of desolation such as we fail utterly to comprehend on a theory of human motives. Yet no one takes from him his precious redeeming life; he lays it down of himself, out of his great love foLVAL(r men. But men are to deny themselves, and take up their cross and tread in his steps. They are his friends only if they keep his commands and follow his footsteps.\par We must consider it proved that these three points or elements are the doctrine of the whole New Test. What is there about this teaching that has provoked in times past and present so much disputation? Not the hardness of the doctrine \emdash for none of the theories put in its place are any easier \emdash but its want of logical completeness. Sketched out for us in a few broad lines, it tempts the fancy to fill it in and lend it color; and we do not always remember that the hands that attempt this are trying to make a mystery into a theory, an infinite truth into a finite one, and to reduce the great things of God into the narrower limits of our little field of view. To whom was the ransom paid? What was Satan's share of the transaction? How can one suffer for another? How could the Redeemer be miserable when he was conscious that his work was one which could bring happiness to the whole human race? Yet this condition of indefiniteness is one which is imposed on us in the reception of every mystery. Prayer, the incarnation, the immortality of the soul, are all subjects that pass far beyond our range of thought. Here we see the wisdom of God in connecting so closely our redemption with our reformation. If the object were to give us a complete theory of salvation, no doubt there would be in the Bible much to seek. The theory is gathered by fragments out of many an exhortation and warning; nowhere does it stand out entire, and without logical flaw. But if we assume that the New Test. is written for the guidance of sinful hearts, we find a wonderful aptness for that particular end. Jesus is proclaimed as the solace of our fears, as the founder of our moral life, as the restorer of our lost relation with our Father. If he had a cross, there is a cross for us; if he pleased not himself, let us deny ourselves; if he suffered for sin, let D LVALT us hate sin. And the question ought not to be. What do all these mysteries mean? but Are these thoughts really such as will serve to guide our life and to assuage our terrors in the hour of death? The answer is twofold one from history and one from experience. The preaching of the cross of the Lord even in this simple fashion converted the world. The same doctrine is now the ground of any definite hope that we find in ourselves of forgiveness of sins and of everlasting life. See Thomson, essay on the "Death of Christ," in Aids to Faith. \par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par \par } LVALh*{\rtf1\ansi\ansicpg1252\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SOTERIOLOGY\par Soteriology\par (Gr. <START GREEK>\par swthri/a$ lo/go$<END GREEK>\par , doctrine of salvation) treats of the work of Christ as man's Redeemer, and its logical study requires that we should consecutively look at the deeds. Christ has wrought for the salvation of the world, and at their application, through faith, to individuals. The former is called Objective Soteriology, the latter Subjective Soteriology.\par a. Objective. \emdash Under this head are included the incarnation of Christ, his holy life, obedience unto death, the intermediate state, resurrection, exaltation to heaven. Christ's coming again, the threefold office of Christ, and the work of the Holy Ghost \emdash all of these entering into the work of atonement.\par b. Subjective. \emdash Under this head are discussed the several steps which constitute the way of salvation, the demands upon the sinner, and how he is enabled to satisfy these demands. These are, desire for salvation, saving faith, true repentance, good works, Christian sanctification, the work of grace (necessity, extent, character, result).\par Soteriology received little theoretical investigation in the ancient Church compared with that bestowed upon the Trinity and original sin. The chief defect in the patristic soteriology is that the distinction between justification and sanctification was not always so carefully drawn as to preserve the doctrine of atonement in its integrity. The holiness of the Christian is sometimes represented as cooperating with the death of Christ in constituting the ground of the remission of sin.\par The papal statements during the Middle Ages were too influential to allow of an improvement in soteriologv, and the Church was holding a theory of salvation wholly opposed to that which prevailed in the fourth cedLVALtntury. Anselm interrupted this dogmatic decline, and set the Church once more upon the true path of investigation. The leading features of his theory are:\par 1. Sin is an offense against the divine honor.\par 2. This offense cannot be waived, but must be satisfied for.\par 3. Man cannot make this satisfaction except by personal endless suffering.\par 4. God must, therefore, make it for him, if he is to be saved.\par 5. God does make it in the incarnation and atonement of the Son of God. The soteriology of Anselm exerted but little influence upon Roman Catholic Christendom, but Luther's assertion of justification by faith alone caused soteriology to become the center of dogmatic controversy between Protestant and Papist. The principal point of dispute between the Council of Trent and the Protestant theologians related to the appropriate place of sanctification. The Roman divine maintained that holiness of heart is necessary to the forgiveness of sin, as a meritorious cause; while the Protestant threw out the human element altogether, and claimed that the blood of Christ is the only meritorious cause and ground of forgiveness.\par In the Protestant Church discussions have been excited by the Socinian opposition and the Grotian modification.\par For the historical examination of this subject, see Baur [F.C.], Die christl. Lehre von der Versohnung (1838); Ritschi, Die christl. Lehre von der Rechtf. und Versohnung (1870), vol. 1. For other phases, see the Dogmatics of Lange, Martensen, Nitzsch; Evangelical Quar. Rev. Oct. 1868; Edwards, Justification and Wisdom in Redemption; Hodge, Theology, vol. 2; Grotius, Sacrifice of Christ; Pressensd, Sur la Redemption, in Bulletin Theol. 1867, 1 sq.; Schoberlein, art. Erlosung, in Herzog, 4, 129-140; Shedd, Hist. of Doct. p. 201-386.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par \par } LVALh,{\rtf1\ansi\ansicpg1252\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 UNITARIANISM\par \par Unitarianism\par \par belief in the unity of God. In a comprehensive sense it includes, with a part of Christendom, Jews, Mohammedans, Deists, and all who worship God as one. For this use, however, the accepted term is Monotheism. Within the ranks of Christendom the name Unitarian is given to those who reject the dogma of the Trinity in its varying phases of a threefold or tri-personal Deity, whether three in substance or only in name and form, and who maintain the essential unity of God as Creator and Father, and the created nature and subordinate rank of Jesus Christ. Within this range opinions about Jesus vary from those that assign him a pre-existent and super-angelic rank to an estimate purely human. While the name strictly touches this doctrine only, it is vitally related and gives character to the whole system of belief concerning human nature and need, human life and its purpose, this world and its meaning, and the future world and man's destiny.\par \par I. History of the Belief. \emdash \par \par 1. In the Early Church. Unitarianism has accompanied Christianity from the beginning, at least as one form of its faith. Unitarians maintain that their faith is that of the early Church as taught by Jesus Christ and his apostles. They appeal to Jesus as the supreme teacher of Christianity, finding in his word and character the essence of the Gospel. They state their chief tenets in the language of the New Test. without note or comment, "To us there is but one God, the Father;" "This is life eternal to know thee, the only true God, and Jesus Christ whom thou hast sent." They hold that the doctrine of the Trinity, so startling to Jews trained in the worship of one God and expecting a Messiah of human lineage, would have required a statement more explicit than any found in the Bible record. ThLVAL-ey hold that the doctrine, at best, is an inference from texts of obscure meaning or doubtful genuineness, every one of which is separately abandoned by prominent Trinitarian scholars as not expressly\par teaching the doctrine; while the Roman Catholic holds it on the authority of the Church, deeming it not clearly taught in the Bible.\par \par Unitarians consider the doctrine of the Trinity a gradual development, as Gentiles came into the Church and subjected the Gospel to the influence of Oriental speculations and Greek philosophy. The followers of Zoroaster and Plato, teaching the eternal antagonism of spirit and matter, filled the time with speculations concerning God as a superior essence creating the world by inferior divinities. In the Platonic doctrine of the Logos began the gradual deification of Jesus, consummated only by votes of successive councils of the 4 th century. A succession of testimonies meanwhile show the continued existence of faith in the undivided unity of God. In the latter half of the 2 nd century, Justin Martyr says, "Some there are among ourselves who admit that Jesus is Christ while holding him to be man of men." Still later, Tertullian says, "Common people think of Christ as a man." About the year 200 Tertullian was himself the first to introduce into Christian theology the word "Trinitas." The unity of God was expressly taught by a sect called the "Monarchians." Some held that God the Father himself was born and suffered in human form, and hence were called "Patripassians." Of these were Beryllus, bishop of Bostria in Arabia; Praxeas, who came from Asia Minor to Rome; Noetus, of Smyrna; and, still later, Sabellius, a presbyter in the Church about 250, the most original and profound mind among the Monarchians. The teachings of Sabellius are variously represented by friend and foe, and are not now very accurately to be known. He had followers as late as the 5 th century in Mesopotamia and in Rome. Others held that Christ was in nature purely human, but exalted by his LVAL.superior measure of divine wisdom and inspiration. Of these were Theodotus of Byzantium, Artemon of Rome, and Paul of Samosata. This noted teacher, bishop of Antioch from the year\par 260, makes prominent the human personality of Christ, teaching that "Christ was a man," "exalted to peculiar union with the divine nature by the illumination of divine wisdom." Deposed in 269, his name became. a synonym for heresy and in the next century the celebrated historian Eusebius confirms the testimony that he taught "that Christ was in nature but a common man." Speculation and controversy thus went forward until, in the beginning of the 4 th century, the relation of God and Christ had become a question of substance or resemblance. In the famous theological struggle over the terms homo and homousian, whether God and Christ were of the same or only similar nature, Arius maintained that Jesus was a created being. He was opposed by the bishop Alexander, aided by Athanasius; and the controversy waxed hot and opinion was divided, until Constantine, recently come to the throne as the first Christian emperor, summoned in 325 the Council of Nice, in which the angry storm of the three hundred theologians was allayed and Arius and his doctrine condemned. The historian Eusebius naively says, "The emperor succeeded in bringing them into similarity of judgment and conformity of opinion on all controverted points." For another century controversy continued as to the Holy Spirit, the double nature of Christ, and Mary as Mother of God, all of which were gradually settled by majority votes of successive councils, culminating in the Creed long attributed to Athanasius, but now believed to have been written a hundred years after his death.\par \par In surveying the opinions of the early Church, it thus becomes clear that Unitarianism existed from the beginning; that the belief in the Trinity and the Deity of Christ was three or four centuries gradually forming; that during this period the range of opinions concerning Jesus was LVAL/as widely varied as at the present time; that two or three hundred years after the death of Christ it was still doubtful, and settled only by the majority of a council, whose decision was secured through the influence of a newly converted emperor, whether the Christian Church should regard Jesus-as a person in the Godhead, or, as the apostle Peter declared him, a man approved by signs and wonders which God did by him. 'The Unitarian deems the whole question a corruption of the pure Gospel by philosophic speculation, and seeks, as the essence of Christianity, the practical religion\par taught by Jesus Christ of love to God and man. It may be added as a fact of interest, and one significant of the aid rendered to Christianity by this branch of the Church, that one of the chief lights of Arianism, the Gothic Ulfiias, born near the Lower Danube at about the time of the Council of Nice, and consecrated bishop 'at the age of thirty, devoting himself to the religious 'and social development of his people, familiar with the Latin,-Greek, and Gothic languages, rendered his name forever to be honored by his translation of the Bible into his native tongue, which at once helped to give lasting form to the Gothic language aid to perpetuate Christianity among the Gothic people. For four centuries the Goths were accompanied in their migrations by this sacred national work, portions of which still re-' main in the University Library of Upsal, in Sweden. The sect of the Nestorians, also, who may fairly be counted on the Arian side, at about the 7 th century, were the first to carry Christianity to the far East, into Persia and China.\par \par 2. The Reformation reveals Unitarianism existing, and awakens it to renewed life. It accompanied Protestantism from its cradle, as it had accompanied primitive Christianity. Before Luther's death it had appeared in Italy, Hungary, Poland, Switzerland, Germany, and England. In the contest with the pope and is hierarchy, the majority of Protestants, absorbed in the struggle for LVAL0freedom, accepted, unchallenged, as their hereditary belief, the substance of doctrine of the Romish Church. Yet in every Protestant confession the doctrine of the Trinity is reiterated as if on the defensive; while the testimonies of Calvin, Melancthon, and others against the Unitarian heresy reveal its strength. Among the many who, before and after the Reformation, bore witness to their faith in persecution and death, Unitarianism has its own list of confessors and martyrs. In bishop Mant's History of Ireland is a brief account of Adam Duff, who for' his denial of the Trinity was burned alive, near Dublin, in 1326. The early theological repositories make record of a priest, William Taylour, put to death as an Arian, in England in 1422. Conspicuous among the Reformers were the Unitarians Servetus and the Socini, Michael Servetus, born in Villanueva, Aragon, in 1509, the year of' Calvin's birth, while studying law at Tonlouse, heard of the contest, left his home and\par his profession, and sought the Reformers AEcolampadius, at Basle, Bucer and Capito, at Strasburg, and Calvin, at Paris. His bold genius pushed past them in seeking a rejuvenated Christianity. Skilled in mathematics and the Oriental languages, in law, medicine, and theology, his fearless spirit of inquiry and eager thirst for truth gave the highest interest to his religious speculations. "Your trinity," he declares, "is a product of subtlety and madness. The Gospel knows nothing of it. The old fathers are strangers to these vain distinctions. It is from the school of Greek sophists that you, Athanasius, prince of tritheists, have borrowed it." Such sentiments provoked bitter hostility. Zwingli denounced him as "that wicked and cursed Spaniard;" Calvin spoke of him as the "frantic" Servetus, who "has thrown all things into confusion." When Servetus published his Seven Books on the Errors of the Trinity, and his more noted work on the Restoration of Christianity, severely criticizing Calvin's views, his doom was sealed. On his flight froLVAL1m persecutors at Vienne, as he stopped at Geneva, Calvin caused his arrest and trial. The flames of Protestant persecution dismissed into eternity, through frightful agony, this brave soul that dared assert the absolute unity of God. The leading Reformers expressed no regret, but silently or openly approved it. See SERVETUS.\par \par Laelius Socinus, born in Siena in 1525, of distinguished ancestry, familiar with Biblical languages, an able critic, a member of the famous Vicenza Secret Religious Society of Forty, on their dispersal fled to France, England, Poland, and at last to Zurich, where he died at the age of thirty-seven. A student rather than reformer or controversialist, he yet left behind him a deep impress of his free and original thought. His nephew, Faustus Socinus, born also in Siena in 1539, was expelled from Italy at twenty, studied at Basle, visited Poland and Transylvania, where, carrying forward his uncle's thought and work until his death in 1604, he became the more active and noted leader of Socinianism (q.v.).\par \par Less conspicuous, but with these, may be named in Germany, Cellarius, Capito, Johann Denk, Sebastian Frank, and the scholarly Ludwig Hetzer, one of the earliest, who, for writing against the Deity of Christ, was imprisoned by the magistrates of Constance, and suffered death in 1529; also Claudius of Savoy, George Blandrata in Transylvania, Gonesius and Farnovius in Poland, Stephen Dolet, friend and disciple of Servetus, who, at the age of thirty-seven, was tried for heresy and burned alive in Paris in 1546; and John Valentine Gentilis, who preached in France and Switzerland, and suffered death at Berne in 1566, saying, as he laid his head on the block, "Many have suffered for the glory of the Son, but none have died for the glory and supremacy of the Father."\par \par 3. In Italy, before the Reformation, the doctrine of the Trinity encountered dissent, the advocates of which were driven from the country, or were attracted by the larger freedom farther North. TLVAL2hus went forth many to Switzerland, Germany, Hungary, and Poland; among whom were the famous Socini and the celebrated preacher Bernardo Occhino. Hundreds also were put to death, among whom were James Palaeologus, burned at Rome, and Sega and Guirlanda, drowned at Venice. It was in this interest of reforming the faith that the society was formed in Vicenza, of forty persons of talents and learning, discarding the Trinity, meeting in secret, of whom, after 1546, many were imprisoned and others suffered death. From that time there has been no recognized or organized Unitarian body of any strength in Italy, although it is believed there are many who hold this faith. The advocate Magnani has for years conducted Unitarian service at Pisa. The astronomer Filopanti has lectured in Bologna, Milan, Rome, and Naples upon Channing, the distinguished American Unitarians leader, of whom further mention will be made below. Professor Ferdinando Bracciforti has translated Channing's works into Italian, and has for years conducted Unitarian service at Florence and at Reggio. Professor Sbabaro, in the Rivisa Europa of October, 1879, argues that Channing supplies the form and spirit of the religion needed by the craving heart of thoughtful Italy. He there says, "I have made choice of Channing as the most eloquent witness and an irrefragable proof of the new evolution of Christian thought in\par the world, and of the reform which is in process of initiation in human religiousness; because in the story of his career, and in the fortunes of his books, in the marvel of their rapid diffusion in all corners of the civilized earth, is to be seen the most luminous and triumphant proof of the reality of that movement which is inwardly transforming European society, and bringing it, little by little, to worship under the roof of a new temple, that Church really catholic, whose frontal shall bear, without untruth, the inscription 'To the One God,' which Mazzini hailed on the facades of the Unitarian churches of Hungary."\par \paLVAL3r 4. In France, reporting two million Protestants, since the martyrdom of Dolet in Paris, no specific Unitarian movement has been known. But during the last fifty years, in the Reformed Church, which is mostly Trinitarian, has been a growing liberal party; among whom the Coquerels, father and son, Martin Paschoud, Fontanes, Colani, Vincent, and the present liberals Parisian pastor Auguste Dide have substantially represented Unitarianism. Their papers were formerly Le Reformateur, and Le Disciple de Jesus, and at present La Renaissance. Says Renan, in a brilliant essay on Channing in 1863, "France has rejected Protestantism. She is the most orthodox country in the world, because she is the most indifferent in religious matters."\par \par 5. In Switzerlaad, where the early Unitarian martyrs (Hetzer, at Zurich, in 1529, and Servetus, at Genesa, in 1553) paid the penalty of their lives, the spirit of purity in Church as in State has prevailed; and, with) a, separate formal organization, Unitarian sentiments, were the first, have been steadily held. The Swiss Church has been committed to no dogmatic declaration, it only "to preach purely and fully the Word of God is maintained in the Holy Scriptures." The Genevan church, in general, denies the equality of the Son with 1 h1 X Father, and the Godhead of the Messiah. The correspondent of the Evangelical Christendom, Feb. 1,1875, says," The. Grand Council of Basle, on the question of the Deity of Christ, on May 2, 1871, decided in the negative by a vote of sixty-three voices against forty-eight." Stienne Chastel, professor of ecclesiastical history at Geneva, is among Channing's most ardent admirers. French Switzerland has itself produced two great liberals, Samuel Vincent and Alexander Vinet, who were largely in sympathy with Unitarian thought.\par \par \par 6. Holland, like Switzerland and America, always hospitable to those who are exiles for conscience, has never been wanting in representatives of a free theology. Of its two and a half million ProtesLVAL4tants, about four fifths belong to the Reformed Church; which, again, has its two parties-of Orthodox and Moderns. Since the burning of Flekwyk, a Dutch Baptist, for his denial of the Trinity in 1569, there has been continued progress. In a popular religious work by Dr. Matthes, it is a significant fact that the chapter on God has no allusion to the Trinity; but at the close occurs a foot-note in which, with the calm spirit of the historian rather than that of the controversialist, he speaks of the antiquated doctrine of the Trinity." The creed adopted at the Synod of Dort in 1618 has given place to the acceptance of the Bible as the standard of faith, together with the toleration and diversity of sentiment which are sure to follow.\par \par 7. Germany, that gave the world, along with Luther, some of the first Unitarian reformers, during the succeeding three and a half centuries, without any distinctly organized Unitarian movement, has, with its noted scholarship and philosophy, produced all shades of rationalism, from. extreme orthodoxy to extreme unbelief. In South Germany, governmental statistics of 1861 report 325,0000 Unitarians. Says Dr. Beard, "The Trinity subsists among the learned of Germany only in name. The patristical doctrine has been attenuated to a shadow or reduced to nothing; if brought down into scriptural form it is abandoned; if converted into three 'somewhat,' it is no longer such as the creeds declare or their advocates recognize. The doctrine once taught and held for an essential article of Christian faith is virtually repudiated and silently disowned." A translation of Channing's complete works, by Sydow and Schultze, was published in Berlin in 1850. After that, the chevalier Bunsen, in his God in History, speaks of Channing as "a grand Christian saint and man of God-nay, also a prophet of the Christian consciousness regarding the future." The Protestanten-Verein of Germany, established at Eisenach in 1865, a free Union Association, holding annual conference sessions, though LVAL5not organized on a dogmatic basis and not professedly Unitarian, welcomes and cherishes fellowship and sympathy with the Unitarians of England and America.\par \par 8. In Poland the Unitarian faith early took a firm hold and spread rapidly, aided by refugees who there found a hospitable asylum. Yet it was not without persecution at the start. In 1539, in the market-place in Cracow, was burned Katharine Vogel at the age of eighty, wife of a goldsmith, and alderman, condemned for denying the Deity of Christ and affirming the divine unity. In 1552 the Bible was translated, chiefly by Unitarian scholars, into the Polish language. Hither came Faustus Socinus, around whom flocked converts from all ranks and classes of society, among them many of the nobility. These, protected from persecution by the privileges of their rank, proved especially favorable to a movement which, more than any other of the time, seemed, destructive of the traditions and prestige of the Romish Church. The prosperous commercial city of Racow, with its large printing establishment publishing many of the best books of the day, became its headquarters. Here was issued the famous Racovian Catechism, which became widely known and influential, and was afterwards signally burned in London. King Sigismund II became a convert, and during his reign this party of reformers grew strong enough to form a church of their own. For a, century it flourished, till, in 1660, prince Casimir, a cardinal and a Jesuit, coming to the throne, with unrelenting persecution burned the homes of its adherents, drove them into silence, exile, or death. So effectually did he exterminate it, and with it the spirit of liberty in the state as in religion, that it may fairly be said that Jesuit tyranny at once obliterated a church and a nation.\par \par 9. In Transylvania, Unitarianism was earliest declared by Francis David, first Unitarian pastor and bishop; and afterwards by Socinus and by Georgio Blandrata, an Italian from Piedmont, who became court physician toLVAL6 Sigismund. In 1540 David preached to a multitude in the open streets of Thorda, asserting the Father to be the only God. By his preaching from place to place large numbers were converted, including the king himself, and nearly the whole city of Klausenburg, and many\par Unitarian churches were established. While persecution was rife in the rest of Europe, Transylvania was early conspicuous for religious liberty. Four forms of Christianity the Roman Catholic, the Reformed Evangelical, the Lutheran, and the Unitarian were recognized by law with equal rights, with penalties for those only who should infringe the rights of others. Under this broad tolerance, Unitarianism, which, was, indeed, instrumental in producing it, gained a strong foothold, which, under subsequent persecution, it has never wholly lost. Unhappily, the early tolerance was of short duration. The bishop, Francis David, himself became a martyr, this faith, dying in prison in November, 1579, an event, the tercentenary anniversary of which, in 1879, was celebrated in the land of his martyrdom. The Unitarians of Transylvania are said to have at one time possessed four hundred church buildings, eleven colleges, and three universities. Through the last two centuries the iron hand of Austrian and Jesuit oppression has largely dispossessed them of churches, schools, lands, and even of civil as well as religious rights. They were robbed of their churches, which were transferred to the Jesuits. During the present century, they are regaining privileges and strength, and are reported as having a population of 60,000, now increasing, with 126 churches; a university at Klausenburg with 12 professors and 300 students; two smaller colleges at Thorda and St. Kerezstur; a newspaper, The Seedsower; and many distinguished scholars and literary men, preachers and civilians, in their ranks. Their Church government is that of Episcopacy, strongly modified by Congregationalism, their present bishop being Joseph Ferencz. A special intimacy of fellowship has rLVAL7ecently been cherished and growing between them and the Unitarians of England and America. With their aid the translation of Channing's writings has been widely circulated among the people of Hungary of all sects. 10. England, though later than the Continent in receiving the Unitarian faith, was visited by Occhino, Socinus, and other reformers. In 1548, the priest John Asheton was cited to Lambeth for Arian sentiments, and saved his life only by recanting. Under a similar charge occurred several martyrdoms. George von Parris, a devout German surgeon, for denying the Trinity was burned at Smithfield in 1551, during the brief reign of Edward VI. During the reigns of Mary and Elizabeth, Hammont, Lewes, Ket, Wright, and many others met a similar fate. In the reign of James I, in 1611, the Unitarian Bartholomew\par \par Legate became the last of the Smithfield martyrs; and in 1612, at Lichfield, Edward Wightman, a Unitarian Baptist, was the last martyr who was burned for heresy in England. In the time of Cromwell, John Biddle formed in London the first English Unitarian Church, and gained the title of the father of the English Unitarians, but perished in prison for his faith. In 1640 the synods of London and York deemed it worth while to issue a special canon against Socinianism. And in 1652 the Racovian Catechism, which had been translated into English and actively circulated, was burned in London. To such strength and influence had Socinianism grown there during the century that in 1655 Dr. Owen writes of it, "The evil is at the door; there is not a city or town, scarce a village, in England wherein some of this poison is not poured forth." Before the close of the 17 th century, London had houses of Unitarian worship. Milton was an Arian, as has been proved since his death. Sir Isaac Newton is now known to have written anonymously on the Unitarian side. Locke wrote a work on The Reasonableness of Christianity, which is substantially Unitarian. The scholarly Lardner, author of The Credibility of the GosLVAL8pel History, one of the ablest defenses ever written, held Unitarian opinions. That these views had notably invaded the Established Church is testified by Palmer in 1705 writing that there were "troops of Unitarian and Socinian writers, and not a Dissenter among them." Rev. Thomas Emlyn preached the Unitarian faith in Dublin and London. The Act of Uniformity in 1662 expelled from the Church of England two thousand ministers, mostly Calvinistic Presbyterians. Free from dogmatic tests, many of these ministers and their followers gradually became Arminian, and ultimately Unitarian. After the passing of the Toleration Act in 1689 legalizing Nonconformity, the way was opened by which the prevailing faith largely passed into Unitarianism. Half the Unitarian churches in England today are of this Presbyterian origin. Until 1813 the law made it blasphemy to speak against the Trinity; but a more tolerant public sentiment had long rendered the law a dead letter. Unitarianism as an organized movement was most distinctly initiated by Dr. Theophilus Lindsey, who in 1774 resigned his charge in the Established Church and became pastor of a Unitarian congregation in Essex Street, London. A still more important apostle was the noted Dr. Joseph Priestley.\par \par Born in 1733, educated a Calvinist, distinguished for his scholarship and scientific attainments, in 1755 he became pastor of a small Dissenting congregation in Suffolk, and a conspicuous champion of the humanitarian theology. Believing in the Bible as a divine revelation, and in the miracles as credentials of Christ's authority, while continuing to hold some tenets of Calvinism, he rejected the Trinity and vicarious atonement as unscriptural, wrote to show how these dogmas came in as later corruptions of primitive Christianity, and held that Christ himself claimed to be simply a man. His views brought upon him obloquy and persecution; and, at the hands of a mob losing his books, manuscripts, and philosophical instruments, he was virtually banished from his LVAL9native land. In 1792 he removed to America, gave courses of lectures in Philadelphia, which added fresh stimulus to the rising Unitarianism, but retired for his closing years to the small neighboring village of Northumberland, where he died in 1804. In 1813 the Unitarians were first placed by law on an equality with other Dissenters. For some years sharp controversy continued as to the proprietary rights in certain Church properties held by them, but claimed by orthodox Dissenters. These claims were finally silenced in favor of the Unitarian occupants by the Dissenters Chapels Act of 1844. At the present time there are reported about 350 Unitarian churches in England, mostly Congregational in Church government, and of which one fourth have been formed within the last twenty-five years. In Northern Ireland there is a Unitarian population of about 10,000, still Presbyterians in Church government.\par \par In Scotland there are in the larger cities and towns about ten Unitarian churches. In that country occurred the last execution for blasphemy against the Trinity in the person of a young student, Thomas Aikenhead, hanged near Edinburgh in 1696. The present Unitarian Church of Edinburgh, originally strictly Calvinistic, having adopted the principle of free inquiry, became Arian and finally humanitarian under the pastorate of Dr. Southwood Smith in 1812. In Wales about thirty-four churches of this faith are reported; and there are several strong societies at Montreal, Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide, and other places in the\par British colonies in Canada, India, and Australia. The English Unitarians maintain a missionary college in Manchester, a Presbyterian college at Carnlarthen which educates Unitarian and Independent ministers, and the larger unsectarian institution of Manchester New College, removed recently to London. In their interest are conducted several weekly religious papers: The Inquirer, The Christian Life, The Unitarian Herald, and the new periodical The Modern Review. Their representative mLVAL:issionary society is the British and Foreign Unitarian Association, formed in London, May 25, 1825. Among-the leading writers maybe named (besides Priestley, Lindsey, and Belsham early in the century), more recently, Revs. John James Tayler, Charles Beard, John Hamilton Thom, and James Martinean, one of the greatest living exponents of the higher philosophy of the spirit versus modern materialism. It may be truthfully added that the movement of English Unitarianism is outgrowing the legalism and literalism of a philosophy which narrowed its earlier faith, and is reaching a broader and deeper spirituality.\par \par 11. In America, the free inquiry and open field of thought from the beginning have been favorable to Unitarian views, and the movement for spiritual liberty found special stimulus in the public sentiment following the Revolution. The Pilgrims, bringing to America the parting injunction of their pastor, John Robinson, of Leyden, that there was "more light to break out from God's Word," organized the first Congregational churches in New England at Plymouth, Salem, and Boston upon covenants so broad and undogmatic that these have required no change in accepting the Unitarian faith. Without doubt, the prevailing sentiment was mainly Calvinistic at the start, yet with a measure of Arminianism intermingled that grew imperceptibly, until for the last century and a half the progress of Unitarian sentiments may be distinctly traced. Dr. Gay, of Hingham, ordained in 1717, is supposed to have been the first American preacher of Unitarianism. Before the Revolution, many lawyers, physicians, tradesmen, and farmers were Unitarians, according to the testimony of the elder president Adams, himself a Unitarian; and not the laity only, but many of the clergy, prominent among whom was Mayhew, of the West Church, Boston. In 1768 the famous Hopkins prepared a sermon especially against what he deemed the heresy of the Boston ministers.\par \par In 1783, under the lead of their young minister, Rev. James FreemLVAL;an, then recently ordained, the Episcopal Church of King's Chapel in Boston expunged from its Book of Common Prayer all reference to the Trinity and the worship of Christ, and thus became the first distinctively Unitarian Church in America. Its liturgy and Church organization continue substantially the same at the present time, Priestley's coming gave fresh impulse to this faith, and the writings of Lindsey and Belsham found their way hither. In a letter to Dr. Lindsey, in London, Rev. James Freeman writes that there were "many churches in which the worship was strictly Unitarian, and some of New England's most eminent clergymen openly avowed that creed." In 1801 the oldest Puritan Church in America, the original Church of the Mayflower, established at Plymouth in 1620, by a large majority vote declared itself Unitarian; and with no change in its covenant, using the identical statement of faith drawn up by its Pilgrim founders, it today accepts the Unitarian name and fellowship. Free from restraints of dogmatic creeds and tests, the New England Congregational churches were especially hospitable to inquiry and progress. By imperceptible degrees change came. In 1805 the Unitarian Rev. Dr. Ware was made professor of divinity at Harvard University, Cambridge. This fact excited opposition and controversy. In 1815 a controversy between Dr. Channing and Dr. Worcester resulted in open rupture between the Trinitarian and Unitarian Congregationalists; In 1816 the Divinity School at Cambridge was established by Unitarians. Harvard College was in their hands, and chiefly by their influence has maintained the undenominational position which it claims today. For ten years, from 1815 to 1825, the controversy waxed hot; lines of separation were drawn, and churches and men took sides. As the churches divided the majority carried their name and property to Trinitarian or Unitarian ranks. Meanwhile the seceding minorities organized anew on one side or the other. Thus the ancient parishes, each coextensive with its town,LVAL< were divided; and in many New England towns the oldest church, retaining its ancient Congregational liberty and usages, became in faith and fellowship Unitarian.\par \par \par II. Organization and Present Condition. \emdash During the eventful decade just reviewed, Rev. William Ellery Channing (born in Newport, R.I., April 7, 1780), then in the prime of manhood, with early ripeness of spiritual fruitage, became, by eloquence of tongue and pen, the conspicuous leader of the Unitarian movement. At the ordination of Jared Sparks, in 1819, as minister of the Unitarian Church in Baltimore, his discourse expounding Unitarian Christianity made a profound impression. His intense dislike and dread of sectarianism gave to his preaching an emphasis of individualism and spiritual liberty. Never permitting himself to become the devotee of a sect, to him Unitarianism owes much of its freedom from sectarian and dogmatic trammels. Less a controversialist than a devout and practical preacher, he fearlessly, yet reverently, sought the truth, brought into prominence the spiritual elements of human nature, subjected religious systems to the test of the soul's best instincts and sentiments, and made it his supreme aim to kindle the aspiration for holiness. His testimony was chiefly borne to the fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of man, to the worth of human nature and blessedness of human life, to the dignity of labor and the elevation of the working classes, to spiritual freedom and the divine mission and authority of Jesus Christ. He has come to be recognized by all sects as one of the foremost of American preachers and writers, a leading champion of religious and civil freedom, of education and philanthropy, a seeker for truth, a lover of mankind, and a devoted advocate of Christianity. In April, 1880, the centenary of his birth was celebrated in London and in several of the larger cities in America, many persons of other denominations joining, and the corner-stone was laid of a memorial church at Newport, hisLVAL= birthplace. See CHANNING.\par \par The division in the Church was not of Unitarian seeking. The Unitarian leaders were willing, in the large fellowship and free faith of Congregationalism, to maintain the unity of the Church unbroken. They would have borne their testimony to truth as they saw it, urging all others freely to do the same. The necessity of separation was enforced by fellowship withdrawn, controverted opinions put forward as tests, and by charges made that rendered it impossible to stay. After the break had come, it was with no desire to build a new sect or to prolong the bitterness of controversy it was to do their own part in the\par vineyard that the Unitarians went apart and worked in their own way. But, from the first, their attitude has never ceased to be that Church unity is to be found, not in identity of opinion, but in personal freedom and in brotherly love; and they have declared their readiness on this broad basis to join in fellowship with all who claim to hold the Christian faith and who prove their discipleship by consistent lives. In the exercise of freedom there have always been within the Unitarian fold varieties of individual opinion, while in the same freedom a few have gone into the Trinitarian household and others into a position antichristian or non-Christian. On May 24,1825, was formed in Boston "The American Unitarian Association." Its first article declares its purpose to be "to diffuse the knowledge and promote the interests of pure Christianity." It was incorporated in 1848, with the right to hold trust funds, and has at the present time about $200,000. Without ecclesiastical authority, it is purely a missionary organization, using annual contributions from the churches for publishing and distributing books and tracts, sustaining missionaries, aiding feeble churches, and planting new ones. Its operations are mainly in the home field of America. For forty years its activities were small, the missionary spirit of the denomination being checked by dread of theLVAL> sectarian spirit, and the benevolent gifts of the people, taking more the direction of education and general philanthropy. But within the last fifteen years its income has greatly increased, in 1866 and 1872 exceeding $100,000, although it by no means receives all of the denominational gifts for religious missionary purposes. On April 5, 1865, a convention, consisting of the pastor and two delegates from each church or parish in the Unitarian denomination, met in the city of New York and organized a National Conference, "to the end of energizing and stimulating the denomination with which they are connected to the largest exertions in the cause of Christian faith and work." Its preamble declared that "the great opportunities and demands for Christian labor and consecration at this time increase our sense of the obligations of all disciples of the Lord Jesus Christ to prove their faith by self-denial, and by the devotion of their lives and possessions to the service of God and the building-up of the kingdom of his Son." it is a representative body of pastors and delegates, chosen and meeting biennially, purely advisory in\par \par character, for counsel and fellowship. Its meetings are held in September at Saratoga, open to the public, and are steadily increasing in the numbers attending, also in interest and in practical purpose and value. Since its formation, the Unitarian churches of America have given more for missionary purposes than in all their previous history. Within smaller and more convenient territorial districts have been formed also local conferences with more frequent meetings, which have been successful in fostering fellowship and co-operation, and a more devout and earnest religious life. Without other ecclesiastical authority, the government of the churches and their usages and modes of worship are purely Congregational. The rites of baptism and of the Lord's supper are recognized and observed, not as having mystic value or binding authority, but as having spiritual worth and influLVAL?ence. The denominational Year-book for 1890 reports 407 churches, of which 240 are in New England, chiefly in Massachusetts, and 100 mainly in the West; 510 ministers, 20 local conferences, besides a number of organizations of purely benevolent aim and purpose. Two theological schools are sustained-one at Cambridge, founded in 1816, having six professors and about twenty students, and a library of 18,500 volumes, while the large University library of 240,000 volumes is also open to its use. About $140,000 have recently been added to its endowment fund to increase its corps of professors. The Theological School at Meadville, Pa., was formed in 1844, and has four resident professors, 18,000 volumes in its library, and about thirty students. The periodicals of the denomination are the Unitarian Review, the Christian Register, now in its fifty-ninth year; The Dayspring, a Sunday school paper, all published in Boston, while several smaller organs are published elsewhere. The denomination is rich in its literature, especially in the direction of practical and devout religious sentiment. The works of Channing, now widely circulated among English-speaking people all over the world, are translated in part or entire into the Dutch and German, French, Italian, Swedish, Hungarian, Icelandic, and Russian languages. There may also be mentioned as leading Unitarian preachers and writers, Henry Ware (father and son), James Walker, Theodore Parker, Edmund H. Sears, Orville Dewey, William H. Furness, Henry W. Bellows, James Freeman Clarke, Frederick H. Hedge, and Andrew P. Peabody. Unitarian writers are also largely represented in the walks of history and literature in America as in England. It may\par \par be added that Unitarian sentiments are held substantially by "Universalists," "Christians," "Hicksite Quakers," and "Progressive Friends."\par \par III. Doctrinal Views. \emdash In seeking the present form of Unitarian faith, it is needless to recount the speculations of earlier times. The tenets of Sabellius aLVAL@nd Paul of Samosata and Arius, also of Servetus and the Socini, in their special forms sharing the crudities of contemporaneous thought, have largely passed away. They are not to be quoted as authority. They are simply in the line of historical progress, agreeing only in the single fundamental thought that God is one, and Jesus Christ a created and subordinate being. Unitarianism is characteristically not a fixed dogmatic statement, but a movement of ever-enlarging faith. It welcomes inquiry, progress, and diversity of individual thought in the unity of spiritual fellowship. With faith in the unity of God as its key-note, it asserts the unity of all truth in nature, history, experience, and the Bible, the unity of the Church as based on character, not on dogma; and the unity of spiritual life in this world and the next. Its leading principles are, first, the freedom of every individual soul to seek the highest truth and to obey it; and, second, that character is the test of Christian discipleship. Unitarians declare life, not dogma, to be the essence of Christianity. They deem Christianity to be essentially a reasonable religion, according with the truths of nature, instructing reason and appealing to it as interpreter and judge. They hold it to be a progressive religion; that its principles, like the axioms of mathematics, are eternally true, but that its germs unfold with the increasing intelligence of mankind. Right belief they deem important for right living, and they emphasize the value of righteousness as establishing the kingdom of God on earth, and as alone fitting the soul for his kingdom above. They refuse to formulate their belief in fixed creeds of ecclesiastical and exclusive authority; because these never settle open questions, but only' start fresh controversy; because they limit inquiry and hinder progress; and because they make dogma instead of character, and opinion instead of spiritual purpose, the bases and tests of fellowship. Yet, while refusing\par \par any authoritative creedLVALA statement, there is an unwritten consensus of faith in which Unitarians are substantially agreed. They believe in the one God as the Creator of the universe and Father of all souls; a Father who wills man's welfare, desiring that not even the least shall perish; the Fatherly Friend in all worlds, who does not wait for forgiveness and favor to be purchased, but freely pours forth blessing on all who will accept it; Father of the sinner as of the saint, seeking every wanderer with his pursuing love, and punishing the erring not for his pleasure, but for their profit, that they may become partakers of his holiness. Unitarians believe in man as naturally neither, saint nor sinner; that his nature is not corrupt and ruined, but undeveloped and incomplete; that he inherits tendencies to good as well as to evil, and that he is sinful only as he knowingly and willfully does wrong; that he needs regeneration, the unfolding and renewal of his spiritual nature, which he experiences through obedience to the truth, under that divine influence which is called the Holy Spirit; that, as a child of the Infinite, allied to the Supreme Goodness by ties that cannot be sundered, having in him a spark of divinity that makes his ultimate redemption an inextinguishable hope, he yet needs to be taught and inspired of God, but with the aid of the divine grace, which is his birthright privilege, he is able to climb to celestial summits. Unitarians believe in Jesus Christ, as the four evangelists describe him, as at once Son of God and Son of man. They care little for metaphysical speculation about the mystery of his nature, but emphasize his word and life as a practical help for human salvation. They hold that he is our Savior as he becomes to us the Light of the World, the Fountain of Living Water, and the Bread of Life; our Savior by illustrating the eternal principles of right, inspiring his followers to holiness, and imparting to them true life more abundantly; our Savior so far as lie leads and helps us to be large-hearteLVALd, truth seeking, pure, loving, and devout; that he came into the world to bear testimony to the truth, and was here not to be ministered unto, but to minister, and that he proved himself humanity's Lord and Leader by his divine helpfulness. Under the influence of elevated views of man's spiritual nature, affirming his innate power of apprehending religious truth, Unitarianism, in declaring the humanity of Christ, does not bring Jesus down, but lifts\par \par humanity up. It asserts that Jesus was purely human only to show that human nature itself is, in the phrase of Athanasius, Homoiousion, of the same substance with God, and that Jesus is the best expression of that divine humanity which is the birthright and promised destiny of all souls. While they are jealous of ecclesiastical authority or dictation, and perpetually refuse to limit their belief by formula, the Unitarians have, in public assembly of the American Unitarian Association, and in representative meetings of their national and local conferences, repeatedly reaffirmed their attitude of Christian discipleship, and shown that they hold themselves to be a body of believers upon the Christian foundation and within the Christian Church. They deem the mind of Christ the best index of Christianity. For the sources of Unitarian thought, therefore, they refer to Unitarian literature, more especially to the New Test., and supremely to the word and life of Jesus Christ.\par \par R. R. S. \par \par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par \par \par \par \par } LVALhC{\rtf1\ansi\ansicpg1252\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 UNITARIANS\par \par Unitarians\par \par a general name for those bodies of professed Christians who do not fully recognize the equality of the three Persons in the Godhead. The essential errors of Unitarianism, as evangelical Trinitarians regard them, are a denial (a) of the true divinity of Jesus Christ; and (b) of the inherent and total moral depravity of human nature. These two are claimed to be not simply dogmas, but facts sustained by observation and history as well as by the plain and constant teachings of the Holy Scriptures. They are intimately correlated to each other; for if Christ be not truly divine, then there is no adequate atonement for human sin; and, conversely; if man be not essentially a sinner, he needs no such divine Savior. Hence our Lord in treating with Nicodemus announced the necessity of a radical, moral change as the first and all-important condition of Christianity (John 3:1-13). Accordingly the doctrine of a spiritual and fundamental regeneration will be found to be the true touchstone of all evangelical orthodoxy, and those branches of Christendom who lay most stress upon it prove to be the most efficient in the moral renovation of mankind. Humanitarianism alone can never be more than a negative and powerless, because a really false, view of the actual condition and relation of the race as respects their Creator and Redeemer. See HUMANITARIANS.\par \par In the same summary manner, Unitarians reject, as being to them unphilosophical and unintelligible, the divinity of the Holy Spirit, a doctrine which all who have passed through the pangs of true contrition into the joys of conscious pardon and heavenly communion find so comforting and necessary to the explanation of their own religious experience (Rom 5; 1:1-5:21; 1 Cor 2:10-14). See TRINITY.\par \par While pointing out these, as we de LVAL" em, radical defects in Unitarianism as a system of Christian faith, we nevertheless are bound to bear witness to the literary culture, social refinement, and moral virtues which Unitarians as a body have exhibited, and to their amenity and ameliorating influence in the defense of civil rights and the general cause of philanthropy. These we attribute, however, not so much to their creed as to the hereditary effect of early Puritan training and the power of a sound Christianity diffused through the community in the midst of which they live and operate. See UNITARIANISM.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par \par \par } bLVALt{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SAADHS\par \par Saadhs,\par \par a sect in Hindostan who have rejected Hindu idolatry, substituting for it a species of deism. They are found chiefly at Delhi, Agra, Jyepore, and Furruckhabad. Their name implies Pure, or Puritans. The sect originated in A.D. 1658, with a person named Birbhan. They have no temples, but assemble at stated periods, more especially every full moon, in private houses, or in adjoining courts set apart for this purpose. They wear white garments, use no pigments, nor sectarian marks upon their forehead, and have no chaplets or rosaries or jewels.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\ansicpg1252\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SA, MANOEL DE\par \par Sa, Manoel De,\par \par a Portuguese theologian, was born in 1530 at Villa do Conde. At the age of fifteen he joined the Order of Jesuits, and became instructor in philosophy, first in the University of Coimbra, and afterwards at Gaudia. Being called to Rome in 1557, he spent his time in teaching, preaching, and editing a new version of the Bible, which appeared during the pontificate of Sixtus V. He also founded many religious houses in Upper Italy. After residing for a time at Genoa, he returned to the convent at Arona, where he died, Dec. 30, 1596. Of his works, we have Aphorismi Confessorum (1595): \emdash Scholia in IV Evangeliis (1596): \emdash Notationes in Totam S. Scripturam (1598).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVALhF{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SAADIA\par Saadia(s), Hag-Gaon\par (<START HEBREW>/oaG*h^<END HEBREW>\par , the majesty), ben-Joseph Ha-Pithomi, Ha-Mizri, called in Arabic Said Ibn-Jaakub al-Fayumi, a learned Jewish rabbin, was born at Fayum, in Upper Egypt, A.D. 892. His contemporary was the Arabian historian Masudi. Saadia enjoyed the tuition of an eminent Karaite teacher. Salomon ben-Jerucham, an advantage that gave him an enlargement of mind beyond many of his colleagues in the Babylonian schools, though he never embraced the Karaite doctrines, but contended for the necessity of oral tradition. Saadia was distinguished alike as philosopher, Talmudist, theologian, orator, grammarian, and commentator, and, when little more than twenty-two (915), he published his first production, written in Arabic, entitled "A Refutation of Anan," or Kitab ar-rud ila Anan. This work has not as yet been found, but from Jerucham's rejoinder to it we learn that the import of it was to refute Anan's doctrines, and to show the necessity of the traditional explanation of the Scriptures as contained in the Rabbinic writings. "He urged in support of tradition that the simple words of the Bible are insufficient for the understanding and the performance of the law, since many of the enactments in the Pentateuch are only stated in outline, and require explanation; as in the case of the general prohibition to work on the Sabbath, where the nature of the labor is not defined; that prayer was not at all ordered in the Mosaic law, while the necessity of it is referred to an oral communication; that the advent of the Messiah and the resurrection of the dead are based upon traditional exegesis; and that the history of the Jews is derived entirely from tradition" (comp. Jerucham against Saadia, Alphabet 3, MS.). The rapid stride of Karaism, and the fact that theLVALG Karaites were now almost the sole possessors of the field of Biblical exegesis and grammatical research, while the orthodox Jews were satisfied with taking the Talmud as their rule of faith and practice, determined Saadia to undertake an Arabic translation of the Scriptures, accompanied by short annotations. His Biblical works are, <START HEBREW>la ryspt hrwt<END HEBREW>\par , A Translation of the Pentateuch, which he completed A.D. 915-920. The commentary accompanying this translation, and which Aben-Ezra and Saadia himself mention, has not as yet come to light, but the Arabic version has been published, first with the reputed Chaldee paraphrase of Onkelos, the Jewish Persian version of Jacob Taus, the Hebrew text, and Rashi's commentary (Constantinople, 1546); then in the Paris and London polyglots, with a Latin version: <START HEBREW>hyu?y ryspt<END HEBREW>\par , A Translation of Isaiah, which H.E.S. Paulus published from a MS. in the Bodleian Library (Cod. Pococke, No. 32) of the year 1244, under the title Rabbi Saadioe Phiumensis Versio Jesaioe Arabica, etc. (Jena, 1790-91), and which called forth a number of dissertations and criticizms, as well as corrections, as may be seen in Eichhorn's Allem. Bibliothek der biblischen Literatur, 3, 9 sq., 455 sq.; Michaelis, Neue oriental, Bibliothek, 8, 75 sq.; Gesenius, Der Prophet Jesaia, 1, 1, 88 sq.; Rappaport, in Bikkure Ha-Ittim, 5, 32, etc.; Munk. Notice sur Saadia, etc., p. 29-62: \emdash <START HEBREW>d\'c1ad rdbz ryspt<END HEBREW>\par (<START HEBREW>hr?<END HEBREW>\par ), A Translation of the Psalms of David, with annotations; only parts of this commentary, which is still extant in two MSS. of the Bodleian Library (Cod. Pococke, No. 281 [Uri, No. 39], and Cod, Hunt, No. 416 [Uri, No. 49]), and in one Munich MS., were published by Schnurrer, Hanneberg, and Ewald: \emdash <START HEBREW>bwya ryspt<END HEBREW>\par , A Translation of Job, with annotations, entitled <START HEBREW>lydut!la batk<END HEBREW>\par , The Book of Justification, or TLVALHheodicoea; excerpts of this version, and annotations from the only MS. extant (Bodleian Library, Cod. Hunt. No. 511). were published by Ewald: \emdash <START HEBREW><yry?h ry? lu? wryp<END HEBREW>\par , A Commentary on the Song of Songs, first published by Isaac Akrish (Constantinople, about 1579); then separately by Salomon ben-Moses David, under the title <START HEBREW>hydusr? wrp<END HEBREW>\par (Prague, 1608). Excerpts of the Constantinople edition, with an English translation. were published by Ginsburg in his Historical and Critical Commentary on the Song of Songs (Lond. 1857), p. 36, etc. From quotations made by Aben-Ezra, Kimchi, Salomon ben-Jermecham, and other Jewish expositors and lexicographers, we know that Saadia also wrote commentaries on other books, as on Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, and Esther, as well as the Minor Prophets and the book of Daniel. Of his grammatical and lexical works, only that on the seventy <START GREEK>\par a%pac lego/mena<END GREEK>\par , entitled <START HEBREW>ryspt<NL?hdrpla hfpl /yubsla<END HEBREW>\par , was published by Dukes, and again, with important corrections, by Geiger in his Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift (Leips. 1844), 5, 317-324.\par All these works Saadia wrote before he was thirty-six years of age, i.e. between A.D. 915 and 928. So great was the reputation which these works secured for him that he was called to Sora, in Babylon, where he was appointed gaon of the academy, a dignity which had never before been conferred upon any but the sages of Babylon, who were selected from the learned teachers of their own academies. After occupying this high position a little more than two years (928-930), he was deposed through the jealousy of others and his own unflinching integrity. In the presence of an anti-gaon, he retained his office fir nearly three years more (930-933), when he had to relinquish his dignity altogether. In Baghdad, where he now resided as a private individual from 933 to 937, he wrote against the celebrated Masorite Aaron bLVALIen-Asher, as well as those two philosophical works, viz. the commentary on the Book Jezira, and the treatise commonly entitled <START HEBREW>twurw twnwma<END HEBREW>\par , Faith and Doctrine, which were the foundation of the first system of ethical philosophy among the Jews. This latter work, which is intended to demonstrate the reasonableness of the articles of the Jewish faith, and the untenableness of the dogmas and philosophemes opposed to them, consists of ten sections, and discusses the following subjects:\par section 1, the creation of the world and all things therein;\par 2, the unity of the creation;\par 3, law and revelation;\par 4, obedience to God and disobedience, divine justice and freedom;\par 5, merit and demerit;\par 6, the soul and immortality;\par 7, the resurrection;\par 8, the redemption;\par 9, reward and punishment;\par 10. the moral law.\par The original of this work, entitled <START HEBREW>tanamala batk tadaqtualaw<END HEBREW>\par , sand written in Arabic, has not as yet been published. It is in Ibn-Tibbon's Hebrew translation of it, made in 1186, under the title <START HEBREW>tonWma$h* s@ touD@h@w=<END HEBREW>\par , and published in Constantinople (1562), Amsterdam (1648), Berlin (1789), in Furst's German translation (Leipsic, 1845), and in Ph. Bloch's translation in the Judisches Literaturblatt (Magdeburg, 1878), which shows that this treatise is accessible to scholars. Saadia also wrote an Agenda, containing prayers and hymns, which are specified by F\'fcrst. In the year 937 Saadia was reinstalled in his office as gaon of Sura, and died five years afterwards, in 942. See Rappaport, Biography of Saadia in Bikkure Ha-Ittim (Vienna, 1828), 9, 20-37; Geiger, Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift (Frankf.-on-the-Main, 1835), 1, 182; ibid. (Leipsic, 1844), 5, 261 sq.; Judische Zeitschrift. 1868, p. 309; 1872, p. 4 sq., 172 sq., 255; Munk, Notice sur Rabbi Saadia Gaon et sa Version Arabe, in Cahen's Bible (Paris, 1838), 9, 73 sq.; Ewald u. Dukes, Beitrage zur Geschichte der JLVALZaltesten Auslegung des Alten Testaments (Stuttgart, 1844), 1, 1-115; 2, 5-115; Furst, Bibliotheca Judaica, 1, 266-271; id. Geschichte des Karaerthums von 900-1575 (Leips. 1865), p. 20 sq.; Introduction to the Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon, p. 24 sq.; Steinschneider, Catalogus Librorum Hebr. in Bibliotheca Bodleiana, No. 2156-2224; Gratz, Geschichte der Juden, 5, 268 sq., 479 sq.; Bloch, in Gratz's Monatsschrift, 1870, p. 401 sq.; Turner. Biographical Notices of some of the most Distiguished Jewish Rabbis (N.Y. 1847), p. 63-65, 1851-90; Ueberweg, History of Philosophy (ibid. 1872), 1, 418, 423, 424; Ginsburg, in Kitto's Cyclop. s.v.; id. Commentary on the Song of Songs (Lond. 1857), p. 34 sq.; Etheridge, Introduction to Hebrew Literature, p. 226 sq.; Dessauer, Geschichte der Israeliten, p. 278 sq.; Steinschneider, Jewish Literature, p. 84, 125, 131, 132, 135, 159, 160, 165, 166; Schmiedel, Saadia Alfajumi und die negativen Vorzuge seiner Religionsphilosophie (Wien, 1870); Kalisch, Hebrew Grammar (Lond. 1863), 2, 5 sq.; Keil, Introduction to the Old Testament (Edinb. 1870), 2, 383; Bleek, Einleitung in das Alte Testament, p. 1101 sq., 104 sq., 744; De Rossi, Dizionario Storico, p. 97 (Germ. transl.); id. Bibliotheca Judaica Antichristiana, p. 98 sq.; Jost, Gesch. d. Judenth. u. s. Secten, 2, 274 sq., 279, 285, 345; Kaufmann, Die Attributenlehre des Saadjac Alfajjumi (Gotha, 1875); Eisler, Vorlesungen uber die judischen Philosophen des Mittelalters, I. Abtheilung (Wien, 1876), p. 1 sq.; Kaufmann, Geschichte der Attributenlehre in der j\'fcdischen Religionsphilosophie des Mittelalters von Saadja bis Maimuni (Gotha, 1877), and review of this work in Z. d. d. M. G. (1878), 32, 213 sq.; B\'e4ck, Geschichte des j\'fcdischen Volkes (Lissa, 1877), p. 255 sq.; Theologisches Universal-Lexikon, s.v.\par B. P. \par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVALhK{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SAALSCH\'dcTZ, JOSEPH LEVIN\par Saalsch\'fctz, Joseph Levin,\par a learned German rabbi, was born in K\'f6nigsberg, March 15, 1801, and was educated in his native place, where he was also made doctor of philosophy in 1824, having presented for this purpose to the faculty an elaborate treatise on the Urim and Thummin. In the following year he published Von der Form der hebr. Poesie, nebst einer Abhandlung uber die Musik der Hebraer (K\'f6nigsberg, 1825), which he republished with two additional treatises under the title Form und Geist der biblisch-hebr. Poesie (ibid. 1853). He then went to Berlin, where he was engaged in the Jewish public school (1825-29), at the same time prosecuting his archaeological researches. In 1829 he was called as rabbi to Vienna, where he remained until 1835, when he was called for the same position in his native place. Here he continued the remainder of his life, and published the following works: Forschungen im Gebiete der hebraisch-\'e4gyptischen Arch\'e4ologie (1838-49, 3 vols.): \emdash Das mosaische Recht (1846-48; 2 vols.; Berlin, 1863, 2 d ed.): \emdash Arch\'e4ologie der Hebr\'e4er (1856, 2 vols.) \emdash Die Ehe nach biblischer Vorstellung (1858) \emdash Die klassischen Studien und der Orient (1850). In 1849 he was appointed privat-docent in philosophy at the University of K\'f6nigsberg \emdash the first Jew who ever received such an appointment \emdash and was afterwards made honorary professor. He died Aug. 23, 1863. See F\'fcrst, Bibl. Jud. 3, 182 sq.; Zuchold, Bibl. Theologica, 2, 1103; Kitto, Cyclop. s.v.; Jost, Gesch. d. Judenth. u. s. Secten, 3, 362; Theologisches Universal-Lexikon, s.v.; Kayserling, Bibliothekj\'fcdischer Kanzelredner, 2, 85 sq.; Jolowicz, Gesch. d. Juden in K\'f6nigsberg (Posen, 1867), p. 130 sq.; Ben Chananya (1864), p. 749 sq.\par LVAL B. P. \par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVALhM{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SABA\par Saba Or Sabas\par (<START GREEK>\par Sa/ba$<END GREEK>\par ), the name of several saints of the Roman Catholic Church. See SABBAS.\par 1. A Gothic soldier who was martyred at Rome with 170 other persons under the emperor Aurelian (Martyr. Rom. April 24; Tillemont, Memoires, 4, 363).\par 2. Another Goth and martyr who suffered many cruel tortures in the persecution under Athanaric, king of the Goths, and was finally drowned in the river Mussaeus. His relics, together with a letter from the Gothic to the Cappadocian Church (which is preserved among the epistles of St. Basil), were sent to Cappadocia by the Roman governor on the Scythian border (Basil, Epp. 155, 164, 165; Martyr. Rom. and Acta SS. April 12; Stolberg, 12, 209).\par 3. A hermit of Mount Sinai who, according to a statement by the hermit Ammonius (Combefis, Acta SS.; Eust., etc. [Paris, 1660]), was mortally wounded in a surprise by the Saracens towards the close of the 4 th century (Tillemont, Memoires, 7, 575).\par 4. The name Sabas or Sabbas (according to Theodoret, Vit. Patr. c. 2, equivalent to <START GREEK>\par presbu/th$<END GREEK>\par ) was conferred upon the hermit Julian of Edessa by the Mesopotamians. Julian was accounted one of the leading hermits by Jerome and Chrysostom. He spent forty years of his life (about A.D. 330-370) in a narrow and damp cave in the desert of Osroene, practicing the utmost austerity, performing miracles \emdash chiefly works of healing and exorcisms, descriptions of which are given by Theodoret and instructing a band of nearly 100 pupils. The death of Julian the Apostate was revealed to tins saint at the moment when that emperor fell in battle ( A.D. 363), though twenty days journey separated him from the scene of conflict (Theodoret, H.E. 3, 24). In the reign of Valens the Arians of ALVALNntioch claimed that this hermit, whose fame extended over the entire East, belonged to their party; but Sabas, in response to the request of the Catholics, forsook his solitude for the first time in forty years, and appeared at Antioch to contradict the Arian boast, his journey to that place and back being signalized by the performance of numerous miracles. The recollection of this visit was still fresh when Chrysostom preached at Antioch. Sabas died in his cave, an old man. His festival is observed by the Greeks on Oct. 18 and 28, and by the Latins on Jan. 14 (Acta SS. Jan. 14; Tillemont, Memoires, 7, 581; Stolberg, 12, 198).\par 5. The most noted saint of this name appeared at the beginning of the 6 th century in connection with the Monophysite controversy. He was born about A.D. 439 at Mutalasca, in Cappadocia, of good family. At first a monk under the rule of St. Basil, he became a hermit in Palestine before completing the eighteenth year of his age, and was received into favor as a pupil by the hermit Euthymius, to whose prayers he owed the preservation of his life at a subsequent day, when he was dying of thirst in the desert (Stolberg, 17, 168). He was made a priest in A.D. 484, and placed over all the hermits in the neighborhood of Jerusalem, eventually filling his station with great success, though at first the strictness of his rule gave much dissatisfaction and caused his withdrawal to a distant solitude. At the time of the Monophysite controversy, the patriarch Elias of Jerusalem sent him with other hermits to Constantinople with a view to dispose the emperor Anastasius more favorably towards the Catholic cause, but his mission failed to produce lasting results. Elias having been superseded in the patriarchate by John, who belonged to the party of Severus (q.v.), Sabas and others induced the new primate to renounce his views and acknowledge the Council of Chalcedon. The emperor endeavored to reclaim John, but was met with a spirit of defiant opposition, which found further expression in<LVALL the pronouncing of a solemn anathema upon Nestorius, Eutyches, Severus, and all other opponents of the Council of Chalcedon. The revolt of Vitalian in the meantime diverted attention from the insubordinate monks, and in 518 the emperor Anastasius died. Sabas afterwards performed a second journey to Constantinople, a year before he died, for the purpose of obtaining a reduction of the oppressive imposts exacted from the population of Palestine, and also to counteract the influence of Origenism, which began to make itself felt among the monks under his direction. He was received with great pomp, the emperor Justinian sending Epiphanius, the patriarch, and a number of bishops and courtiers in the imperial galleys to meet him, and on his arrival prostrating himself before the aged hermit to receive his blessing. The petition in behalf of Palestine was granted, and a large sum of money was offered to Sabas for the use of his convent; but this Sabas declined to receive, and asked that it be appropriated to other useful purposes in Palestine. Nothing, however, was done against Origenism while Sabas lived. See ORIGENISTIC CONTROVERSY. A joyful welcome awaited him on his return to Palestine, after which he retired to his laura, and died Dec. 5, A.D. 531 or 532. There is a Greek liturgy entitled <START GREEK>\par Tupiko/n<END GREEK>\par , etc. (printed at Venice, 1603, 1613, 1643, fol.), attributed to St. Saba, but of unknown authorship. See Cyrilli Vita S. Saboe in Cotelerii. Monum. Eccl. Gr. 3, and Latin in Surius, Dec. 5; Tillemont, Memoires, 16, 701 sq.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVAL{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SABA, MONASTERY OF\par Saba (St.), Monastery Of,\par \par now called Deir Mar Saba, still exists on the brink of Wady Nar, the extension of the valley of the Kidron, near the Dead Sea. The surrounding scenery is of the wildest and most romantic character. See KIDRON. The convent hangs on the precipitous side of the ravine, being partly excavated out of the rock, and surrounded by a strong wall, accessible only on one side. The edifices within are extensive and commodious, being occupied by about sixty monks of the Greek rite, who are said to be quite rich. The original cell of the founder is shown, said to have been a cave occupied by a lion, which voluntarily relinquished it to the saint. The convent was plundered by the Persians in 533, and forty-four of the monks were then massacred; but it has survived all the vicissitudes of the Holy Land, of which it is one of the earliest monastic relics. No women are ever admitted within its portals, although the monks are hospitable to male visitors, provided they are furnished with the proper credentials. For a full description, see Robinson, Researches, 1, 382, 521; Thomson, Land and Book, 2, 435; Porter, Handbook for Pal. p. 229.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVALR {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SABAI VERSION\par \par Sabai Version Of The Scriptures\par \par Sabai is spoken in several islands in Torres Strait, between Australia and Papua. The gospel of Mark was printed at Sydney in 1883 under the care of the Auxiliary of the British and Foreign Bible Society. The translation was made by a teacher, Elia, who had been fifteen years engaged on the work, and revised by the Reverend S. Macfarlane, of Murray Island. The gospel of Matthew has since then been added.\par \par B. P. \par \par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SABACHTHANI\par \par Sabach'thani\par \par [many sabachtha'ni] (\par <START GREEK>sabaxqani/\par <END GREEK>, a Graecized form of the Chaldee shebakta'ni, <START HEBREW>yn!T^q=b^v=\par <END HEBREW>, thou hast left me), quoted by our Lord upon the cross (Matt 17:46; Mark 15:34) from the Targum on Ps 22:2 (where the Heb. has azabta'ni, <START HEBREW>yn!T^b=z^u&\par <END HEBREW>, "thou hast forsaken me"). See Petersen, Erforschung des Wortes \par <START GREEK>sabaxqani/\par <END GREEK> (s.l. 1701). See AGONYY.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVALhR{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SABAEANS\par Sabae'an.\par As much confusion has been introduced by the variety of meanings which the name Saboeans has been made to bear, it may be proper to specify in this place their distinctive derivations and use. In our Authorized Version of Scripture the term seems to be applied to three different tribes.\par 1. The Sebaim (<START HEBREW><ya!b*s=<END HEBREW>\par , with a samech), the descendants of Seba or Saba, son of Cush, who ultimately settled in Ethiopia. See SEBA.\par 2. The Shebaim (<START HEBREW><ya!b*v=<END HEBREW>\par , with a shin), the descendants of Sheba, son of Joktan, the Saboei of the Greeks and Romans, who settled in Arabia Felix. They are the "Sabaeans" of Joel 3:8, to whom the Jews were to sell the captives of Tyre. The unpublished Arabic Version, quoted by Pocock, has "the people of Yemen." Hence they are called "a people afar off, "the very designation given in Jer 6:20 to Sheba, as the country of frankincense and the rich aromatic reed, and also by our Lord in Matt 12:42, who says the queen of Sheba, or "the south, "came <START GREEK>\par e)k tw=n pera/twn th=$ gh=$<END GREEK>\par , "from the earth's extremes." See SHEBA.\par 3. Another tribe of Shebans (Heb. sheba', <START HEBREW>ab*v=<END HEBREW>\par , also with a shin), a horde of Bedawin marauders in the days of Job (Job 1:15); for whether we place the land of Uz in Idumoea or in Ausitis, it is by no means likely that the Arabs of the south would extend their excursions so very far. We must therefore look for this tribe in Desert Arabia; and it is singular enough that, besides the Seba of Cush and the Shaba of Joktan, there is another Sheba, son of Jokshan, and grandson of Abraham, by Keturah (Gen 25:33); and his posterity appear to have been "men of the wilderness, "as were their kinsmen of Midian, Ephah, aLVALSnd Dedan. To them, however, the above-cited passage in the prophecy of Joel could not apply, because in respect neither to the lands of Judah nor of Uz could they be correctly described as a people "afar off." As for the Sabaim of Ezek 23:42 (which our version also renders by Sabaeans"), while the Keri has Sabaiyam', <START HEBREW><y*a!b*s*<END HEBREW>\par , the Kethib has Sobeim', <START HEBREW><ya!b=os<END HEBREW>\par , i.e. "drunkards," which better suits the context. See SHABA.\par 4. Yet, as if to increase the confusion in the use of this name of "Sabaeans," it has also been applied to the ancient star worshippers of Western Asia, though they ought properly to be styled Tsabians, and their religion not Sabaism, but Tsabaism, the name being most probably derived from the object of their adoration, tseba', <START HEBREW>ab*x=<END HEBREW>\par , the host, i.e. of heaven (see an excursus by Gesenius in his translation of Isaiah, On the Astral Worship of the Chaldoeans, and SABAOTH).\par 5. The name of Sabaeans, or Sabians, has also been given to a modern sect in the East, the Mandaites, or, as they are commonly but incorrectly called, the "Christians" of St. John; for they deny the Messiahship of Christ, and pay superior honor to John the Baptist. They are mentioned in the Koran under the name of Sabionna, and it is probable that the Arabs confounded them with the ancient Tsabians above mentioned. Norberg, however, says that they themselves derive their own name from that which they give to the Baptist, which is Abo Sabo Zakrio; from Abo, "father;" Sabo, "to grow old together;" and Zakrio, e.g. Zechariah. "The reason they assign for calling him Sabo is because his father, in his old age, had this son by his wife Aneshbat (Elizabeth), she being also in her old age" (see Norberg's Codex Nasaroeus, Liber Adami Appellatus, and Silvestre de Sacy, in the Journal des Savans for 1819). See SABIANISM.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006bLVALr by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVAL{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SABAT\par \par Sa'bat\par \par (\par <START GREEK>Saba/t\par <END GREEK>, v.r. in Esdr. \par <START GREEK>Safa/t\par <END GREEK> and \par <START GREEK>Safa/g\par <END GREEK>), the Graecized form of three names in the Apocrypha.\par \par 1. The head of one of the families of "Solomon's servants" who returned from the captivity with Zerubbabel, according to 1 Esd 5:34; but the Heb. lists (Ezra 2:57; Neh 7:59) have no corresponding name.\par \par 2. The Jewish month SHEBAT (q.v.) (1 Macc 16:14).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SABANUS\par \par Sabanus\par \par (\par <START GREEK>sa)bano$\par <END GREEK>, classical \par <START GREEK>sa/banon\par <END GREEK>, a linen cloth), a white cloth with which the infant was covered in baptism. This was an ancient practice. From the 4 th century we find frequent mention of clothing the newly baptized in white garments. These garments, as emblems of purity, were delivered to them with a solemn charge to keep their robes of innocence unspotted till the day of Christ. The neophytes wore this dress from Easter eve until the Sunday after Easter, which was hence called Dominica in albis, that is, "the Sunday in white." This garment was usually made of white linen, but sometimes of more costly materials. See ALB; See CHRISOME.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVALhV{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SABAOTH\par Sab'aoth\par [some Saba'oth] (<START GREEK>\par sabaw/q<END GREEK>\par , a Graecized form of the Heb. tsebaoth', <START HEBREW>toab*x=<END HEBREW>\par , armies), a word occurring in this form only in the A.V. in Rom 9:29; James 5:4; but in the Heb. of frequent occurrence in the phrase "Jehovah of hosts," or "Jehovah, God of hosts." "It is familiar through its occurrence in the Sanctus of the Te Deum, 'Holy, Holy, Holy, Lord God of Sabaoth.' It is often considered to be a synonym of, or to have some connection with, Sabbath, and to express the idea of rest, and this not only popularly, but in some of our most classical writers. Thus Spenser, Faery Queene, canto 8, 2.\par 'But thenceforth all shall rest eternally\par With him that is the God of Sabaoth hight:\par O that great Sabaoth God, grant ire that Sabaoth's sight;' \par also Bacon, Advancement of Learning, 2, 24: '... sacred and inspired divinity, the Sabaoth and port of all men's labors and peregrinations;' Johnson, in the first edition of whose Dictionary (1755) Sabaoth and Sabbath are treated as the same word; Walter Scott, Ivanhoe, vol. 1, ch. 11 (1 st ed.): 'a week, aye the space between two Sabaoths.' But this connection is quite fictitious. The two words are not only entirely different, but have nothing in common." The Heb. term tsaba, <START HEBREW>ab*x^<END HEBREW>\par , signifies an army (see Deut 24:5; Ex 6:26). The plural is used in the sense of armies (Ex 7:4, and often). The singular is sometimes applied to the company of angels which surround the throne of Jehovah, who are called <START HEBREW><y!m^V*h^ ab*x*<END HEBREW>\par , tsaba hash-shamayim, "the host of heaven." The same phrase is also applied to the stars, for the most part as objects of idolatrous worship; indeed, the expression appears to include everLVALything in heaven, both angels and heavenly bodies. Isaiah uses the phrase <START HEBREW>ab*x* orM*h^<END HEBREW>\par , tsaba ham-marom, "the Host on High, "in opposition to the kings of the earth. God is called <START HEBREW>ho*hy= toab*x= yh@l)a#<END HEBREW>\par , Jehovah elohey' tsebaoth, "Jehovah God of hosts," which most commentators regard as synonymous with "God of heaven" (see Zenkei De Synonymis <START HEBREW>toab*x=<END HEBREW>\par et <START HEBREW>/oyl=u#<END HEBREW>\par , Lips. 1763), though others assert that it should be taken in a military sense, as the God of armies or wars. "It designates him as the supreme head and commander of all the heavenly forces; so that the host of Jehovah is all one with the host of heaven (1 Kings 22:19), and must be understood strictly of the angels, who are ever represented as the Lord's immediate and fitting agents, ready on all occasions to execute his will (Ps 103:21; 148:2). It is never applied to God with reference to the army of Israel. Once, indeed, the companies composing this are called the hosts of the Lord' (Ex 12:41), because they were under his direction and guardianship; but when employed with the view of heightening the idea of God's greatness and majesty, as the term 'hosts' is in the phrases in question, the hosts can only be those of the angelic or heavenly world" (see Gesenius, Thesaur. s.v.)' See HOST.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par }  LVAL( {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SABATAEAS\par \par Sabatae'as\par \par (\par <START GREEK>Sabatai/a$\par <END GREEK> v.r. \par <START GREEK>Sabbatai/a$\par <END GREEK> and \par <START GREEK>Sabatai=o$\par <END GREEK>), a Graecized form (1 Esd 9:48) of the Heb. name (Neh 7:7) SHABBETHAI See SHABBETHAI (q.v.).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVAL{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SABATNIKI\par Sabatniki,\par a sect of Russian Sabbatarians, or "Sabbath-honorers," which arose in Novgorod (cir. A.D. 1470), where some clergy and laity were persuaded by a Jew of Kiev, named Zacharias, into a belief that the Mosaic dispensation alone was of divine origin. They accepted the Old Testament only, of which, being unacquainted with Hebrew, they used the Slavonic translation. Like the Jews, they were led to expect the advent of an earthly Messiah. Some of them denied the Resurrection; and, being accused of practicing several cabalistic arts, for which points of Jewish ceremonial may have been mistaken, were regarded by the common people as soothsayers and sorcerers. They were gradually becoming a powerful sect, one of their number, named Zosima, having even been elected archbishop of Moscow, when in A.D. 1490 they were condemned by a synod, and a fierce persecution nearly obliterated them. But here and there, in remote parts of Russia, travelers have within the last century discovered fragmentary communities holding Jewish views, which have been thought to be relics of the older sect of Sabatniki. In Irkutsk they continue to exist under the name of Selesnewschschini. See Platon, Present State of the Greek Church in Russia (Pinkerton's transl.), p. 273.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVAL {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SABAZIUS\par \par Sabazius,\par \par a deity worshipped by the ancient Phrygians, alleged to have sprung from Rhea or Cybele. In later times he was identified both with Dionysus and Zeus. The worship of Sabazius was introduced into Greece, and his festivals, called Sabazia, were mingled with impurities. \emdash Gardner, Faiths of the World, s.v. See also Vollmer, Worterbuch der Mythol. s.v.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SABATUS\par \par Sab'atus\par \par (\par <START GREEK>Sa/bato$\par <END GREEK>, v. . r. \par <START GREEK>Sa/baqo$\par <END GREEK>), a Graecized form (1 Esd 9:28) of the Heb. name (Ezra 10:27) ZABAD See ZABAD (q.v.).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVAL:{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SABBAEUS\par \par Sabbae'us\par \par (\par <START GREEK>Sabbai=o$\par <END GREEK>, v.r. \par <START GREEK>Sabbai/a$\par <END GREEK>), a corruptly Graecized form (1 Esd 9:22) of the Heb. name (Ezra 10:31) SHEMAIAH (q.v.).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SABBA, ABRAHAM IBN-\par \par Sabba, Abraham IBN-\par \par a Jewish writer of the 16 th century, who was banished with thousands of Jews from Lisbon in 1499, is the author of a very extensive commentary on the Pentateuch, entitled The Bundle of Myrrh <START HEBREW>rwmh rwrx\par <END HEBREW>, in which he largely avails himself of the zohar and other early cabalistic works. The commentary was first published at Constantinople in 1514; then at Venice in 1523, 1546, 1566, and at Cracow in 1595. Pellican has translated this commentary into Latin, and the MS. of this version is in the Zurich library. See Furst, Bibl. Jud. s.v. Ginsburg, Kabbalah, page 123; Lindo, History of the Jews in Spain and Portugal, page 266; Jocher, Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon, s.v.\par \par B. P. \par \par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVAL {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SABBAS\par \par Sabbas, St. (Primoe Rasteo),\par \par a mediaeval ecclesiastic, was born during the latter part of the 12 th century. He was the son of Stephen Nemania, founder of the kingdom of Servia. Contrary to the wishes of his father, Rasteo embraced the monastic life, and, though young, was soon made abbot. He prevailed upon the patriarch of Constantinople to create a Servian archbishopric, and was himself the first to enjoy the position. He made an extended our through Egypt and the Holy Land, and, on his return, died at Truava, in Bulgaria, Jan. 14, 1237. His remains were placed in the monastery at Milechivo, but were burned in 1595 by the order of Sikan Pasha. The 14 th of January is kept in memory of this saint.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SABBAN\par \par Sab'ban\par \par (\par <START GREEK>Sa/bbano$\par <END GREEK>; Vulg. Bauni), a corrupt form (1 Esd 8:63) of the Heb. name (Ezra 8:33) BINNUI (q.v.).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVAL{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SABBATARIANS\par Sabbatarians,\par those who keep the seventh day as the Sabbath. They are to be found principally, if not wholly, among the Baptists. They object to the reasons which are generally alleged for keeping the first day, and assert that the change from the seventh to the first was effected by Constantine on his conversion to Christianity. The three following propositions contain a summary of their principles as to this article of the Sabbath, by which they are distinguished: 1. That God has required that the seventh, or last, day of every week be observed by mankind universally for the weekly Sabbath. 2. That this command of God is perpetually binding on man till time shall be no more. 3. That this sacred rest of the seventh-day Sabbath is not (by divine authority) changed from the seventh and last to the first day of the week, or that the Scripture nowhere requires the observance of any other day of the week for the weekly Sabbath but; the seventh day only. They hold, in common with other Christians, the distinguishing doctrines of Christianity. See Evans, Sketches of the Denominations of the Christian World. See BAPTISTS, SEVENTH-DAY.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par }  LVAL 2{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SABBATH, COURT OF THE\par \par Sabbath, Court Of The\par \par (<START HEBREW>tB*V^h Es^Wm\par <END HEBREW>, musak hash-shabbath; Sept. \par <START GREEK>o(q eme/lio$ th=$ kaqe/dra$ tw=n sabba/twn\par <END GREEK>; Vulg. Musach sabbati, 2 Kings 16:18), is understood to mean a canopy under which Ahaz used to stand, at the entrance of the porch of the Temple, when he attended the service; but which he removed when he became an idolater, to show his contempt, and his intention of not resorting thither any more. See COURT. So we see in 2 Chron 28:24 that "he shut up the doors of the house of God" that none might enter to worship. See AHAZ.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SABBATATI\par \par Sabbatati,\par \par a name applied sometimes to the Waldenses (q.v.), from the circumstance that their teachers wore mean or wooden shoes, which in French are called sabots. \par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVALh_{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SABBATH DAY'S JOURNEY\par Sabbath Day's Journey\par \par (<START GREEK>\par sabba/tou o(do/$<END GREEK>\par , Acts 1:12; in Talmudical Heb. <START HEBREW>tB*V^h^ <ojT=<END HEBREW>\par , techim hashshabbath) is a phrase for the prescribed distance which may lawfully be traversed on a Sabbath, and beyond which no Jew can go without violating the sanctity of the day, except he adopts the means appointed for exceeding the canonical boundary.\par I. Distance of a Sabbath-way, and its Origin. \emdash From the injunction in Ex 16:29, that every man is to "abide in his place, "and not "go out of his place" on the Sabbath, the ancient Hebrew legislators deduced that an Israelite must not go 2000 yards, or 12,000 hand breadths \emdash as the ancient Hebrew yard consisted of six hand breadths \emdash five Greek stadia, for the Greek stadium measured 2400 hand breadths \emdash beyond the temporary or permanent place of his abode. Epiphanius's definition of the Sabbath day's journey at six stadia =14,400 hand breadths, or 750 Roman geographical paces (Hoer. p. 66, 82), is most probably based upon the larger yard, which the Jews adopted at a later period. See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. These 2000 yards are not to be measured from any and every spot, but according to definite and minute rules, the city having always to be reduced to a square. Thus if the Sabbath day's walk is to be fixed from a circular city, an imaginary square must be circumscribed about it, and the measurement is not to be taken from the corners a in a diagonal direction \emdash i.e. from a to e \emdash inasmuch as thereby the distance between will be less than 2000 yards, but from a to f, whereby the allowable distance is increased in the direction of a e, as will be seen from the annexed diagram.\par The permitted distance seems to haveLVAL` been grounded on the space to be kept between the ark and the people (Josh 3:4) in the wilderness, which tradition said was that between the ark and the tents. To repair to the ark being, of course, a duty on the Sabbath, the walking to it was no violation of the day; and it thus was taken as the measure of a lawful Sabbath day's journey. This prohibition is not repeated in the law, but the whole spirit of the Sabbath institution obviously forbade a Jew to make a proper journey on that day (Josephus, Ant. 13, 8, 4), especially as the beasts of burden and travel were to rest (comp. Matt 24:20). Whether the earlier Hebrews did or did not regard it thus, is not easy to say. Nevertheless, the natural inference from 2 Kings 4:23 is against the supposition of such a prohibition being known to the spokesman, Elisha almost certainly living \emdash as may be seen from the whole narrative \emdash much more than a Sabbath day's journey from Shunem. Heylin infers from the incidents of David's flight from Saul, and Elijah's from Jezebel, that neither felt bound by such a limitation. Their situation, however, being one of extremity, cannot be safely argued from. Our Savior seems to refer to this law in warning the disciples to pray that their flight from Jerusalem in the time of its judgment should not be "on the Sabbath day" (Matt 24:20). The Christians of Jerusalem would not, as in the case of Gentiles, feel free from the restrictions on journeying on that day; nor would their situation enable them to comply with the forms whereby such journeying, when necessary, was sanctified; nor would assistance from those around be procurable. The Jewish scruple to go more than 2000 paces from his city on the Sabbath is referred to by Origen (<START GREEK>\par peri\\ a)rxwn<END GREEK>\par , 4, 2), by Jerome (Ad Algasiam, qu. 10), and by Oecumenius \emdash with some apparent difference between them as to the measurement. Jerome gives Akiba, Simeon, and Hillel as the authorities for the lawful distance.\par Another reasLVALaon for fixing the distance of a Sabbath day's walk or journey at 2000 yards is that the fields of the suburbs for the pasture of the flocks and herds belonging to the Levites measured 2000 cubits or yards, and that in Ex 21:13 it is said, "I will appoint thee a place (<START HEBREW><wqm<END HEBREW>\par ) whither he shall flee" \emdash i.e. the Levitical suburbs or cities. Now, it is argued, if one who committed murder accidentally was allowed to undertake this journey of 2000 yards on a Sabbath without violating the sanctity of the day, innocent people may do the same. Besides, the place of refuge is termed <START HEBREW><wqm<END HEBREW>\par , which is the same word employed in Ex 16:29. As the one <START HEBREW><wqm<END HEBREW>\par , place, was 2000 yards distant, it is inferred, according to the rule the analogy of ideas or words (<START HEBREW>hw? hrzg<END HEBREW>\par ) that the command, "Let no man go out of his place (<START HEBREW>wmqmm<END HEBREW>\par ) on the seventh day" (Ex 16:29) means not to exceed the distance of the place 2000 yards off (Hillel I, rule 2, in Erubin, 51 a; Maccoth, 12 b; Zebachim, 117 a). Josephus (War, 5, 2, 3) makes the Mount of Olives to be about six stadia from Jerusalem; and it is the distance between these two places which in Acts 1:12 is given as a Sabbath day's journey. Josephus elsewhere determines the same distance as five stadia (Ant. 20, 8, 6); but both were probably loose statements rather than measured distances; and both are below the ordinary estimate of 2000 cubits. Taking all circumstances into account, it seems likely that the ordinary Sabbath day's journey was a somewhat loosely determined distance, seldom more than the whole and seldom less than three quarters of a geographical mile. See Selden, De Jure Nat. et Gent. 3, 9; Frischmuth, Dissert. de Itin. Sabbat. (1670); Walther, Dissert. de Itin. Sabbat.; both in Thesaurus Theolog. Philog. (Amsterd. 1720).\par II. Cases in which the Limits of a Sabbath day's Journey could be exceeded. \emdash ThLVALbough the laws about the Sabbath day's journey are very rigorous, and he who walked beyond the 2000 yards, or moved more than four yards farther than his temporary place of abode, when the Sabbath day's journey had not been determined beforehand, received forty stripes save one; yet in cases of public or private service, when life was in danger, people were allowed to overstep the prescribed boundary (Mishna, Erubin, 4; Rosh-hashanah, 2, 5). The Pharisees, or the orthodox Jews in the days of our Savior, also contrived other means whereby the fraternity of this order could exceed the Sabbath day's walk without transgressing the law. They ordained that all those who wished to join their social gatherings on the Sabbath were to deposit on Friday afternoon some article of food in a certain place at the end of the Sabbath day's journey, that it might thereby be constituted a domicile, and thus another Sabbath day's journey could be undertaken from the first terminus. See PHARISEES. This mode of connecting or amalgamating the distances (<START HEBREW>/ymwjnt bwryu<END HEBREW>\par ), as it is called, is observed by the orthodox Jews to the present day. Such importance have the Jews. since their return from the Babylonian captivity, attached to the Sabbath day's journey that a whole tractate in the Mishna (Erubin) is devoted to it. Hence the phrase is mentioned in the New Test. (Acts 1:12) as expressive of a well known law, and the so called Jerusalem Targum translates Ex 16:29, "And let no man go walking from his place beyond 2000 yards on the seventh day, "while the Chaldee paraphrase of Ruth 1:16 makes Naomi say to Ruth, "We are commanded to keep sabbaths and festivals, and not to walk beyond 2000 yards" (comp. Mishna, Erubin, c. 5; Rosh-hashanah, 2, 15; Babylon Talmud, Erubin, 56 b, 57 a; Zuckermann, in Frankel's Monatsschrift fur Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judenthums [Breslau, 1863], 12, 467 sq.).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 20^LVALn06 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVALhd{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SABBATH, CHRISTIAN\par Sabbath, Christian.\par Under this head, we propose to treat of the sabbatical institution as one of general and permanent obligation.\par I. Concerning the time when the Sabbath was first instituted there have been different opinions. Some have maintained that the sanctification of the seventh day mentioned in Gen 2 is only there spoken of <START GREEK>\par dia\\ prolh/yew$<END GREEK>\par , or by anticipation, and is to be understood of the Sabbath afterwards enjoined in the wilderness; and that the historian, writing after it was instituted, there gives the reason of its institution, and this is supposed to be the case, as it is never mentioned during the patriarchal age. But against this sentiment it is urged\par (a) that it cannot be easily supposed that the inspired penman would have mentioned the sanctification of the seventh day among the primeval transactions if such sanctification had not taken place until 2500 years afterwards;\par (b) that, considering Adam was restored to favor through a Mediator, and a religious service instituted which man was required to observe, in testimony not only of his dependence on the Creator, but also of his faith and hope in the promise, it seems reasonable that an institution so grand and solemn, and so necessary to the observance of this service, should be then existent.\par Some find the institution of it in the fourth commandment (Ex 20:8-11); but the language employed is not apparently that of origination. The command to remember the Sabbath seems to imply that the Israelites were already acquainted with its existence and sacredness. But such injunctions, we are told, have often prospective significance, e.g. "Remember this day in which ye came out from Egypt" (Ex 13:3); "Remember the word which Moses the servant of the Lord LVALecommanded you" (Josh 1:13); "Remember now thy Creator in the days of thy youth" (Eccl 12:1). In all these citations the meaning is remember from this time. To this stricture it may be replied that such injunctions have always relation to the future, but that they also suppose antecedent knowledge. Children, for example, would not be told to remember their Creator unless they had been previously informed about creation unless they had been instructed that one God has made us, and that we are all his offspring. That an ordinance should be ushered into existence by the requirement to remember it is a strange idea to which facts give no countenance. Besides, the fourth commandment assigns a reason for observing the Sabbath, which, if good for the future, must have been always valid. We do not here enter into any disquisition about the days of creation. It is enough that God, in a manner befitting him, worked six days and rested on the seventh, and has required that, in a manner befitting us, we shall imitate his example. But how was it to be expected that this consideration should weigh much with the Jews in time to come, if, in preceding ages, God himself had made no account of it in his regulation of human conduct?\par Some, again, have contended that we do not require to go far back in order to find its commencement; they think they learn when and how it began in Ex 16:19-30, these verses have reference to the gathering and cooking of manna. That an institution so prominent as the Sabbath in the religion of the Jews should have been initiated in a manner so incidental, and almost unobservable, is in contradiction to the whole genius of the economy. Nor does the passage countenance any such notion. "It came to pass, "we are told (ver. 22), "that on the sixth day they gathered twice as much bread." In other words, they gathered on the sixth day enough for that day and for the day following. But why provide beforehand for the Sabbath in order to respect and keep its rest, if not in supposed obedience to LVALfthe will of God, as previously notified? It is alleged, in reply, that the order complied with is presented to us afterwards, and occurs in ver. 23, "This is that which the Lord hath said, Tomorrow is the rest of the holy Sabbath unto the Lord: bake that which ye will bake today, and seethe that ye will seethe; and that which remaineth over lay up for you, to be kept until the morning." By this exegesis the practice (ver. 22) is first related, and then we come to the injunction (ver. 23), of which it was the fulfilment! In such inversion of natural order there is obvious unlikelihood. But the exposition in question is otherwise untenable. The verses alleged to exhibit first the obedience, and then the statute obeyed, have no such intimacy of connection. They refer, in fact, to different things. Ver. 23 does not touch on the collection of the manna at all, but has regard to the baking of it \emdash a new subject, and therefore the gathering of it on the sixth day in quantity sufficient also for the seventh day, not being here prescribed, remains without any explanation, except a previous appointment and prevalent knowledge of the sabbatical institution.\par It is objected, however, that the Sabbath disappears from the record during the antediluvian and patriarchal periods. Why this protracted silence about it if it had then a place among religious articles and usages? This evidence of its absence is negative, and cannot outweigh express contrary proof of its initiation. Of these times, be it also remarked, we have not detailed accounts, and we must therefore make allowance for great brevity and many omissions. Succeeding annals are more ample, and yet we have no indication of the observance of the Sabbath during four hundred years after its sacredness had been confessedly proclaimed from Mount Sinai. Even if neglect of the day could be established, such negligence would not disprove obligation. The Passover, during protracted periods, fell into disuse, and there was general and continued departure frLVALgom the marriage relation as originally constituted.\par It is not the case, however, that allusion to the Sabbath is wholly wanting during the time alleged. Occasional mention is made of weeks; and we know that the heathen world very extensively distributed days into sevens, with some notion of sacredness belonging to the seventh. This arrangement is traced by some to the lunar month, divided into quarters, each of seven days, by the phases of the moon. But this computation does not accord, except proximately, with fact, as the lunar month exceeds twenty-nine days in duration. It ascribes consequence also to the number four, as well as to the number seven \emdash partitioning the month into four divisions \emdash and four has no distinctive sacredness in any known country or language. The explanation, though ingenious, is simply a guess, without any support from Scripture or other writings, and has like validity with another conjecture, that the assignment of seven days to a week may have been derived from the supposed number of the planets.\par II. That the Sabbath owes its maintenance to its morality we will endeavor more expressly to substantiate. Here a consideration of first consequence is that it forms the subject of the fourth commandment. Some deny the ethical character of the decalogue. They allege it to be of a mixed nature, and insist that though particular elements in it are of inherent and enduring worth, yet, as a whole, it belonged to an economy of shadows, and has vanished with them. Therefore the presence of any statute in such a compendium is no decisive evidence of moral force.\par 1. But the decalogue in its integrity has a very distinctive place and consequence in the Bible. It was proclaimed with extraordinary solemnity, peculiar to itself, from Mount Sinai (Ex 19:16-24). God caused it to be written on tables of stone, and he made these stones to be deposited in the ark, representative of himself. "These words," says Moses, "the Lord spake to all your assembly in the mount, LVALhout of the midst of the fire, of the cloud, and of the thick darkness, with a great voice, and he added no more." The decalogue was frequently called the covenant, and the chest containing it the ark of the covenant. Would a fragmentary and heterogeneous compound create or warrant any such designation? Again, as often as Christ cited any of these commandments he enforced them emphatically. The Jews seem to have distributed them into greater and less, and to have treated the less as scarcely deserving consideration. But he impressively declared, "Whosoever shall break one of these least commandments, and shall teach men so, he shall be called the least in the kingdom of heaven, but whosoever shall do and teach them shall be called great in the kingdom of heaven." The kingdom of heaven is the Gospel dispensation. Certain statutes our Lord declares to be congenial with that economy, and their observance he characterizes as a sure constituent or guarantee of its greatness. But what statutes could he speak of which verify this description, and are recognizable from others, unless those composing the decalogue? When, also, he resolved the law into two great commandments, he made evident reference to the two tables of the covenant, for he instituted the same classification of devotional and social duties; and when he further resolved all duty into love. with God and man for its objects, he impressed on the whole code a moral interpretation. What can be more truly or purely moral than charity? \emdash charity branching off into piety and benevolence? In a word, the decalogue is reproduced by the apostles. What it enjoins they enjoin in the identical terms, or with only verbal alterations; and how could they more decisively affix their seal to its indelible righteousness?\par 2. The decalogue, then, as a whole, is moral. See LAW OF MOSES. If the Sabbath be an exception, it is the only exception. But when we have found it in a code collectively moral \emdash the morality of which is attested by the clearest LVALiand most cumulative proof \emdash and when we find it sharing all the conspicuousness and honors of the allied enactments, it would require strong argument indeed to render credible its exceptional ritualism. Let us see whether good cause for so regarding it be discoverable in its own nature, or in prophecy, or min what Christ said of it expressly, or in the apostolic epistles. \par (1.) The Sabbath provides for rest and worship. Our sensuous being requires the one, and our spiritual being the other. To deny the laboring population any intermission of toil, or the heir of immortality any time for religious observances, would be to offend against the fundamental conditions of our state of existence. Under these aspects the Sabbath is not arbitrary. It is founded on the essentials and necessities of the human constitution, and nothing here below can be more solid and stable than its groundwork. To speak of our spiritual responsibilities more especially \emdash if it be a moral duty to worship God, it must also be a moral duty to observe that worship to the best advantage. For this the Sabbath provides. It is advantageous for worship that a certain day be set apart for it, and guarded from intrusive distractions. It is advantageous that the worshippers set apart the same day, both to the end that one may not draw another into temporal toil, and that religion may have the aids of social stimulus. It is advantageous that the day recur with suitable frequency. What frequency would be best it might be difficult or impossible for us to determine; but that would not show the proportioning of the time to be a matter of indifference. We can easily perceive that there are extremes to be avoided. If every day were a Sabbath, our terrestrial occupations would be suppressed. If the Sabbath returned once a year, it would be inadequate for the maintenance of habitual devotion. One of these arrangements would have been evidently incompatible with what we owe to this world, and the other with dutiful regard for the wLVALjorld to come. If we can judge thus far of the too often and the too seldom, why may not God descry unerringly the mean, and perceive that one day in seven is the best possible adjustment? \emdash the most conducive to moral good in our existing circumstances'? Experience has recommended no other division of time as preferable; on the contrary, every attempt to elongate or contract the week has utterly failed, and has owed the failure to a manifested impracticability or mischievousness. It follows that not only the duty, but the very timing of the duty, is of moral account, and that the Sabbath is entitled, by its nature, to the place it occupies in the decalogue \emdash fitly and justly ranking with statutes which transcend casualties, and will maintain their jurisdiction while the world lasts. On the same principle, if the sacredness of the Sabbath has been enhanced by rendering it commemorative of some great event, such as the natural creation, there may be religious benefit, and therefore moral suitableness, in transferring it to another day of the seven, in order to commemorate another event of analogous but superior consequence \emdash such as the accomplishment of a spiritual creation by the resurrection of Christ from the dead. See LORD'S DAY. Even the old economy, notwithstanding its necessary regard to times, did not show any rigid adherence to particular days, when a sufficient reason existed for departing from them. Thus, while circumcision was by the law fixed to the eighth day, the great mass of the people who had grown up in the wilderness were circumcised on the same day (Josh 5:1-9); and when any obstacle prevented men from the eating the Passover on the 14 th of the first month, they were allowed to postpone it to the next (Num 9:6).\par (2.) The prophets, speaking in the name of God, always express themselves in reverential language of the Sabbath. (See, in particular, Isa 56:6,7; 58:13,14; also 56:23.)\par It is objected that in these and like instances the Sabbath is allied wiLVALkth acknowledged constituents of the Mosaic law, and that such passages would therefore equally prove their permanency. It is in plain accordance, however, with the moral claims of the Sabbath that its continued observance should be foretold, and the absence of such prediction would have been urged in proof of its abrogation. Besides, these prophecies are in no part meaningless. They point to real and to improved worship in such diction as the Jews were familiar with and could alone comprehend. Shall we say, then, that the change in worship would be improvement, and the change as to the Sabbath abolition? We cannot see that this conclusion is called for "by parity of reasoning." On the contrary, these passages, to have sense or truth in any of their clauses, require a perpetuated Sabbath; for the effect would be to sweep away worship altogether if a day for it were not preserved.\par (3.) As regards Christ's express sayings on this subject, he discouraged, no doubt, such a traditional observance of the Sabbath as would have transformed it into a day of heartless neglects and sanctionless rigors. But he countenanced the keeping of it in its true spirit, as a day of personal privilege and beneficent usefulness avowing that "the Sabbath was made for man, and not man for the Sabbath." This seems to teach that the Sabbath was made for man not as a Jew or as a Christian, but as man, and therefore entitled to his regard in all conditions and through all ages. In reply, however, we are told that the expression in the original is the man. This must mean, it is said, "those for whom it was appointed, without specifying who they were, and not at all designating man in general." We see no grounds for such a paraphrase, but very much to demand its rejection. The article in such expressions defines the individual or the species. No individual man could be thus singled out as having the Sabbath made for him unless it were Adam; and none will assert that it was made for him in any sense exclusive of his posterity. AgLVALlain, the article may define the species, as we say the horse, the ass, the ostrich. Where the species is defined, all the individuals are comprehended, or such an allegation is made as would apply to any of them indifferently. For example, "If the salt have lost its savor, it is good for nothing but to be trodden under the feet of men" \emdash literally "the men," or the species, men without the distinction of Jew and Gentile. "Let your light so shine before men," literally "the men," in the sense of any or all men. "That which cometh out of the mouth this defileth a man" \emdash literally "the man," equivalent to man or any man. Practically the distinction here attempted to be made is visionary. Since man without the article is general, and the man, meaning the species man, is also general, the article may be dropped or retained without affecting the sense. Accordingly, these modes of expression are often used interchangeably. When Christ, then, declares that the Sabbath was made for man, we can only understand him as teaching that it was intended and instituted for our common humanity, and that it is to be so employed as to conduce to man's highest or spiritual good. But he also said that he was "Lord of the Sabbath; which shows," we are told, "that he had power to abrogate it partially or wholly." It seems as if some cannot think of power in connection with the Sabbath unless as exercised in abrogation. If it be placed in Christ's charge, they take for granted that more or less extinction must be the consequence. They speak as if Christ's scepter were an axe, and the only question were how much it would hew down and devastate! We maintain, on the contrary, that Christ would not be the Lord of the Sabbath to be its destroyer. In the language of the New Testament, this title points to assured prosperity. But though he will not superintend in order to annihilate either worship or worshippers, the designation "Lord" does suppose a manifested supremacy, and leads us to expect ameliorating modificationLVALm with essential preservation \emdash in other words, a Christian Sabbath or Lord's day.\par (4.) In the epistles, much stress has been laid by opponents of the Sabbath on some expressions of Paul. "One man esteemeth one day above another, another esteemeth every day alike. Let every one be fully persuaded in his own mind" (Rom 14:5). To us this language is vague and seems general; but it had relation to specific disputes, and we do not know, because we have not been told, what days are more particularly intended. They may have been festival days of human appointment, or cherished relics of Judaism unconnected with its Sabbath perfectly known, without danger of mistake, to the parties addressed. It is admitted that the apostles had stated religious services with assigned seasons for them; and if in the passage commented on we give his words the absolute and exceptionless sense claimed for them, it will follow that he courted contempt for his own ordering of worship. Assuredly he sanctioned no such sweeping indifference to days as would invalidate the injunction, "Forsake not the assembling of yourselves together, as the manner of some is."\par It is said (Col 2:16), "Let no man therefore judge you in meat or in drink, or in respect of an holy day, or of the new moon, or of the Sabbath days, which are a shadow of things to come, but the body is of Christ." This passage perfectly accords with a superseding of the Sabbath day as distinguished from the Lord's day, embodying substantially all that prior sabbatical observance had shadowed. In the same relation we would use the same language still. Independently of this answer to the objection, many have held, with bishop Horsley, that the word Sabbath is not here used in its strict acceptation, but with reference to other days observed by the Jewish Church with Sabbath like solemnity. Even if these passages had more difficulty than they present, two or three doubtful expressions, in relation to local circumstances and usages about which we have little infLVALnormation, are not to be balanced against the weighty and cumulative evidence which has been adduced for the morality of the Sabbath, and its consequent claims on the respect of all countries and ages.\par It may appear to some an objection to these views that if the Sabbath were moral, and therefore immutable, it would remain in heaven, whereas first and seventh days equally lose in the heavenly state their distinctive characters. There all duration is Sabbath \emdash all space sanctuary \emdash all engagement worship. It is sufficient to reply that morality supposes facts in demanding conformity to them. Filial duty implies the existing relation of parent and child, and is ever binding while that relation subsists, but is otherwise non-existent. So the Sabbath supposes a sensible world, and in such a world it must ever be a duty to have time expressly for temporal and time expressly for spiritual occupations. But in the world of spirits, where even the natural body becomes a spiritual body, and which flesh and blood cannot inherit, this discrimination disappears. It is the glory of the Sabbath that it prepares us for this consummation \emdash for inheriting blessings transcending its own privileges, and even induces approximations to celestial perfection under present adverse circumstances.\par III. Under the Christian dispensation, the Sabbath is altered from the seventh to the first day of the week (see Stone, in the Theol. Eclectic, 4, 542 sq.). The arguments for the change are these:\par 1. As the seventh day was observed by the Jewish Church in memory of the rest of God after the works of the creation, and their deliverance from Pharaoh's tyranny, so the first day of the week has always been observed by the Christian Church in memory of Christ's resurrection.\par 2. Christ conferred particular honor upon it by not only rising from the dead, but also by repeated visits to his disciples on that day.\par 3. It is called the Lord's day, <START GREEK>\par kuriakh/<END GREEK>\par , a term otLVALoherwise only used in the New Test. in reference to the sacred supper (1 Cor 11:20), and as in the latter passage it denotes that which specially commemorates the death of our Lord, it seems indisputable that it is applied in the former to that which specially commemorates his resurrection (Rev 1:10).\par 4. On this day the apostles were assembled, when the Holy Ghost came down so visibly upon them, to qualify them for the conversion of the world.\par 5. On this day we find Paul preaching in Troas, when the disciples came to break bread.\par 6. The directions which the apostles give to the Christians plainly allude to their religious assemblies on the first day.\par 7. Pliny refers to a certain day of the week being kept as a festival in honor of the resurrection of Christ; and the primitive Christians kept it in the most solemn manner. See LORD'S DAY,\par These arguments, it is true, are not satisfactory to some, and it must be confessed that there is no law in the New Test. concerning the first day. However, it may be observed that it is not so much the precise time that is universally binding, as that one day out of seven is to be regarded. "As it is impossible," says Dr. Doddridge, "certainly to determine which is the seventh day from the creation; and as, in consequence of the spherical form of the earth, and the absurdity of the scheme which supposes it one great plain, the change of place will necessarily occasion some alteration in the time of the beginning and ending of any day in question, it being always at the same time, somewhere or other, sun rising and sun setting, noon and midnight, it seems very unreasonable to lay such a stress upon the particular day as some do. It seems abundantly sufficient that there should be six days of labor and one of religious rest, which there will be upon the Christian and the Jewish scheme." See SUNDAY.\par As soon as Christianity was protected by the civil government, the Lord's day was ordered by law to be kept sacred. All proceedings in courts of LVALplaw, excepting such as were deemed of absolute necessity, or of charity, as setting slaves at liberty, etc., were strictly forbidden; and all secular business, excepting such as was of necessity or mercy, was prohibited; and by a law of Theodosius senior, and another by Theodosius junior, no public games or shows, no amusements or recreations, were permitted to be practiced on that day (see Cod. Theod. lib. 2, tit. 8, "De feriis;" Cod. Justin. lib. 3; Cod. Theod. lib. 15, "De spectaculis," lib. 5, leg. 2). The day was consecrated by all the primitive Christians to a regular and devout attendance upon the solemnities of public worship, and other religious exercises; and, as Bingham says in his Christian Antiquities, "they spent it in such employments as were proper to set forth the glory of the Lord, in holding religious assemblies for the celebration of the several parts of divine service \emdash psalmody, reading the Scriptures, preaching, praying, and receiving the Communion; and such was the flaming zeal of those pious votaries that nothing but sickness, or a great necessity, or imprisonment, or banishment, could detain them from it." A further proof of the sanctity in which they held the Sabbath was their pious and zealous observance of the Saturday evening, or, rather, from midnight to break of day on the Lord's day. This time the early Christians spent in the exercises of devotion; and persons of all ranks employed it in preparation for the sacred day. It must also be further observed that, in many places, particularly in cities, they usually had sermons twice a day in the churches, and that the evening was as well attended as the morning service; but in such churches as had no evening sermon, there were still the evening prayers, and the Christians of those times thought themselves obliged to attend this service as a necessary part of the public worship and solemnity of the Lord's day. The better to enforce this observance upon such as were ungodly or careless, ecclesiastical censures were infLVALqlicted upon them, whether they frequented places of public amusement or spent the day in indolence at home. These observations chiefly refer to the period between the publication of the Gospel by the apostles and the latter end of the 4 th century \emdash a period when this day might be expected to be observed more in accordance with the command of Christ and the will of the Holy Ghost.\par IV. As the Sabbath is of divine institution, so it is to be kept holy unto the Lord. Numerous have been the days appointed by men for religious services; but these are not binding, because of human institution. Not so the Sabbath. Hence the fourth commandment is ushered in with a peculiar emphasis \emdash "Remember that thou keep holy the Sabbath day." This institution is wise as to its ends, that God may be worshipped, man instructed, nations benefited, and families devoted to the service of God. It is lasting as to its duration. The abolition of it would be unreasonable, unscriptural (Ex 31:13), and every way disadvantageous to the body, to society, to the soul, and even to the brute creation. It is, however, awfully violated by visiting, feasting, indolence, buying and selling, working, worldly amusements, and traveling. "Look into the streets," says bishop Porteus, "on the Lord's day, and see whether they convey the idea of a day of rest. Do not our servants and our cattle seem to be almost as fully occupied on that day as on any other? As if this were not a sufficient infringement of their rights, we contrive, by needless entertainments at home and needless journeys abroad, which are often by choice and inclination reserved for this very day, to take up all the little remaining part of their leisure time. A Sabbath day's journey was among the Jews a proverbial expression for a very short one; among us it can have no such meaning affixed to it. That day seems to be considered by too many as set apart, by divine and human authority, for the purpose, not of rest, but of its direct opposite, the labor of travelLVALring, thus adding one day more of torment to those generous but wretched animals whose services they hire; and who, being generally strained beyond their strength the other six days of the week, have, of all creatures under heaven, the best and most equitable claim to suspension of labor on the seventh."\par The evils arising from Sabbath breaking are greatly to be lamented, they are an insult to God, an injury to ourselves, and an awful example to our servants, our children, and our friends. To sanctify this day, we should consider it \emdash \par (1)\tab a day of rest; not, indeed, to exclude works of mercy and charity, but a cessation from all labor and care;\par (2)\tab as a day of remembrance; of creation, preservation, redemption;\par (3)\tab as a day of meditation and prayer, in which we should cultivate communion with God (Rev 1:10);\par (4)\tab as a day of public worship (Acts 20:7; John 20:19);\par (5)\tab as a day of joy (Isa 56:2; Ps 118:24);\par (6)\tab as a day of praise (Ps 116:12-14);\par (7)\tab as a day of anticipation, looking forward to that holy, happy, and eternal Sabbath which remains for the people of God.\par V. The literature of the subject is very copious. The following are the chief standard works: Brerewood, Treatise of the Sabbath; Prideaux, Doctrine of the Sabbath; Bramhall, Discourses on the Controversy about the Sabbath; White, Treatise of the Sabbath Day; Heylin, History of the Sabbath; Chandler, Two Sermons on the Sabbath; Watts, Perpetuity of the Sabbath; Kennicott, Sermon and Dialogue on the Sabbath; Paley, Natural and Political Philosophy, bk. 5, ch. 7; Holden, Christian Sabbath; Burnside, On the Weekly Sabbath; Burder, Law of the Sabbath; Wardlaw, Wilson, and Agnew, severally, On the Sabbath; Modern Sabbath Examined (1832); James, On the Sacraments and Sabbath; Maurice, On the Sabbath; Kalisch, Commentary on Exodus (ad loc.); Proudhon, De la Celebration du Dimanche; Hessey, Bampton Lecture (Lond. 1866); Johnstone, Sunday and the Sabbath (ibid. 1853); DomLVALville, Inquiry into the Nature of the Sabbath (ibid. 1855, 2 vols.); Ellicott, History and Obligation of the Sabbath (ibid. 1844; N.Y. 1862); Hill, The Sabbath Made for Man (Lond. 1857); Coleman, in the Bibliotheca Sacra, 1, 526 sq.; and the literature cited by Malcolm, Theol. Index, s.v.; and especially by Cox, Literature of the Sabbath Question (Edinb. 1865, 2 vols. 8 vo). Articles on special points connected with the institution of the Sabbath may be found (in addition to those referred to in Poole's Index, s.v.) in the Meth. Quar. Rev. Jan. 1849; April, 1857; Journ. of Sac. Lit. Oct. 1851; July, 1857; Theol. and Lit. Journ. 1852; North Brit. Rev. Feb. 1853; Biblioth. Sacra, Oct. 1854; South. Quar. Rev. July 1857; New-Englander, Aug. 1858; United Presb. Rev. Jan. 1860; Amer. Theol. Rev. April, 1862; Brit. and For. Ev. Rev. Jan. 1863; Princeton Rev. Oct. 1863. See SUNDAY.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVALht{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SABBATH, DAY AFTER THE\par Sabbath, Morrow After The.\par There has been from early times some difference of opinion as to the meaning of the words <START HEBREW>tB*V^h^ tr^j(m*<END HEBREW>\par , mochorath hashshabbath, thus rendered in the computation of the Passover (Lev 23:11,15). It has, however, been generally held, by both Jewish and Christian writers of all ages, that the Sabbath here spoken of is the first day of holy convocation of the Passover, the 15 th of Nisan, mentioned in Lev 23:7. In like manner the word <START HEBREW>tB*v^<END HEBREW>\par is evidently used as a designation of the day of atonement (Lev 23:32); and <START HEBREW>/otB*v^<END HEBREW>\par (sabbati observatio) is applied to the first and eighth days of Tabernacles and to the Feast of Trumpets. That the Sept. so understood the passage in question can hardly be doubted from their calling it "the morrow after the first day" (i.e. of the festival): <START GREEK>\par h( e)pau/rion th=$ prw/th$<END GREEK>\par . The word in ver. 15 and 16 has also been understood as "week, "used in the same manner as <START GREEK>\par sa/bbata<END GREEK>\par in the New Test. (Matt 28:1; Luke 18:12; John 20:1, etc.). But some have insisted on taking the Sabbath to mean' nothing but the seventh day of the week, or "the Sabbath of creation, "as the Jewish writers have called it; and they see a difficulty in understanding the same word in the general sense of week as a period of seven days, contending that it can only mean a regular week, beginning with the first day, and ending with the Sabbath. Hence the Baithusian (or Sadducaean) party, and in later times the Karaites, supposed that the omer was offered on the day following that weekly Sabbath which might happen to fall within the seven days of the Passover. The day of Pentecost would thLVALus always fall on the first day of the week. Hitzig (Ostern und Pfingsten [Heidelberg, 1837]) has put forth the notion that the Hebrews regularly began a new week at the commencement of the year, so that the 7 th, 14 th, and 21 st of Nisan were always Sabbath days. He imagines that "the morrow after the Sabbath" from which Pentecost was reckoned was the 22 d day of the month, the day after the proper termination of the Passover. He is well answered by Bahr (Symbolik, 2, 620), who refers especially to Josh 5:11, as proving, in connection with the law in Lev 23:14, that the omer was offered on the 16 th of the month. It should be observed that the words in that passage, <START HEBREW>Jr#a*h* rWbu&<END HEBREW>\par , mean merely corn of the land, not, as in the A.V., "the old corn of the land." "The morrow after the Passover" (<START HEBREW>js^P#h^ tr^j(m*<END HEBREW>\par ) might at first sight seem to express the 15 th of Nisan; but the expression may, on the whole, with more probability, be taken as equivalent to "the morrow after the Sabbath," that is, the 16 th day. See Keil on Josh 5:11; Masius and Drusius, on the same text, in the Crit. Sac.; Bahr, Symb. 2, 621; Selden, De Anno Civili, c. 7; Bartenora, in Chagigah, 2, 4; Buxtorf, Syn. Jud. vol. 20, Fagius, in Leviticus 23:15; Drusius, Notoe Majores in Leviticus 23:16. It is worthy of remark that the Sept. omits <START GREEK>\par th=| e)mau/rion tou= pa/sxa<END GREEK>\par , according to the texts of Tischendorf and Theile. See PASSOVER; See PENTECOST. But there is strong ground for the Karaitic interpretation. See SABBATH (Supra).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVALhv{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SABBATH, JEWISH\par Sabbath, Jewish.\par The word Sabbath is, in Hebrew, shabbath', <START HEBREW>tB*v^<END HEBREW>\par (comp. Ewald, Ausfuhrl. Lehrb. p. 400; and see on the form shabbathon, <START HEBREW>/otB*v^<END HEBREW>\par , at the end of this art.); in the Graecized form <START GREEK>\par sa/bbaton<END GREEK>\par , or, in the plural form, <START GREEK>\par ta\\ sa/bbata<END GREEK>\par (comp. Horace, Sat. 1, 9, 69). The derivation and meaning of the word are well known. Josephus (Apion, 2, 2) explains it as a rest from all labor, <START GREEK>\par a)na/pauoi$ a)po\\ panto\\$ e&pgou<END GREEK>\par (comp. Ant. 1, 1, 1). Mistaken etymologies, by those ignorant of Hebrew, are found in Josephus, Apion, loc. cit.; Plutarch, Symp. 4, 6, 2; Lactantius, Institut. 7, 14. On Sabbath (G. <START GREEK>\par sa/bbata<END GREEK>\par ) in the sense of week, See WEEK. It is clear that the word <START GREEK>\par e(bdoma/$<END GREEK>\par (2 Macc 6:11) means the Sabbath (comp. Josephus, War, 2, 8, 9).\par This was the seventh day of the Hebrew week, extending from sunset on Friday to sunset on Saturday (comp. Lev 23:32, and see Lightfoot, Hor. Hebr. p. 312 sq.). See DAY. The time during which the sun was going down was the eve of the Sabbath. See PREPARATION. Of course, the commencement and close of the Sabbath varied with the higher or lower position of the observer. Thus, Carpzov quotes from the book Musar this statement: "Tiberias lay in a valley, where the sun disappeared half an hour before setting; Zephore was on a mountain, where the sun shone longer than on the plains. The people in the former, therefore, began their Sabbath sooner, in the latter later, than the rest of the nation." By a law of Augustus (Josephus, Ant. 16, 6, 2), the Sabbath began at the ninth hour. According to the disciplLVALwes of the Gemara, the Sabbath began and ended in all Jewish cities at the sound of the trumpet (comp. Maimon. Hilkoth Shab. c. 5). Josephus records this custom of Jerusalem (War, 4, 9, 12). In the Temple, the trumpet was to be blown from the "covert for the Sabbath," or Sabbath roof, Heb. Mesak hash-shabbath, <START HEBREW>tB*V^h^ Es^ym@<END HEBREW>\par (2 Kings 16:18). See Rhenferd, Opera Philol. p. 770 sq.\par This day was celebrated by the Hebrews as a holy day (Deut 5:12). a day of rest and rejoicing (Isa 58:13; comp. Hos 2:11; 1 Macc 1:41), by ceasing from all labor, with their servants and all strangers, as well as cattle (Ex 20:10; 31:13 sq.; 34:21; 35:2; Deut 5:14, comp. Jer 17:21,24; Josephus, Apion, 2, 39; Dion Cass. 37, 17 [Philo, Opp. 2, 137, extends the Sabbath \emdash rest even to plants \emdash they were not to be eared or reaped on that day]), and by a special burned offering, presented in the Temple, in addition to the usual daily offering (q.v.) \emdash which was doubled on this day \emdash consisting of two yearling lambs, with the meat offerings and drink offerings belonging to it (Numbers 38:9; comp. 2 Chron 31:3; Neh 10:33; Ezek 46:4). In the holy place of the Temple, the shewbread was renewed (Lev 24:8; 1 Chron 9:32), and the new division of priests appointed for that week took their places (2 Kings 11:5,7,9; 2 Chron 23:4). The services of the priests and Levites in and about the tabernacle and Temple were not accounted labor (comp. Matt 12:5), and continued through the Sabbath. Circumcision, too, as a religious ceremony, took place on the Sabbath, when that was the eighth day (John 7:22 sq.; comp. Mishna, Shab. c. 19; Schottgen, Hor. Hebr. 1, 121; Lightfoot, Hor. Hebr. p. 1028).\par Deliberate profanation of this day was punished with death (Ex 31:14 sq.; 35:2), which was inflicted by stoning (Num 15:32 sq.; Mishna, Sanhedr. 7, 8). But if the law of the Sabbath was broken through ignorance or mistake, a sin offering was required, and the offense pardoned (comp. Shab. 7,LVALx 1; 11, 6, Chrithuth, 3, 10). There were times, too, when the Jews dispensed with the extreme severity of their law (Isa 56:2; 58:13; Ezek 20:16; 22:8; Lam 2:6; Neh 13:16); and the legal observance of the Sabbath seems never to have been rigorously enforced until after the Exile. At this time, too, the meaning of the work which profaned the Sabbath was first strictly defined, since the lawgiver had left this to be determined by experience, and, in certain doubtful cases, the individual conscience, definitely prohibiting but one act \emdash the kindling of a fire in one's house (Ex 35:3; comp. Eichhorn, Repert. 9, 32; 13, 258) for cooking (Ex 16:23; Num 15:32; comp. Mishna, Terum. 2, 3). This was interpreted by the Jews, however, to include the lighting of lamps, and they used to do this before the Sabbath began (Mishna, Shab. 2, 7; 16, 8; comp. Seneca, Ep. 95, p. 423, Bip.). This prohibition compelled the Jews to cook and bake their food for the Sabbath on the preceding day, and it was often kept warm in vessels set in dry hay or chips (Mishna, Shab. 4, 1 sq.; comp. also Josephus, War, 2, 8, 9, on the Essenes). The intermission of labor was required on feast days as well as on the Sabbath, except the preparation of food (comp. Ex 12:16; see Mishna, Yom Tob., 5, 2; Megilla, 1, 5). A later age, which sought to observe painfully the letter of the law, and to confide as little as possible to the judgment and conscience of individuals, extended the meaning of this work much further, and strove to complete a formal code for Sabbath observance. Marketing and public trade ceased on the Sabbath, of course (Neh 10:31; 13:15,16); and it was merely an auxiliary police regulation of Nehemiah to close the gates on that day (Neh 13:19). It was in the spirit of the law, too, that traveling on the Sabbath was forbidden, with reference to Ex 16:29 (comp. Josephus, Ant. 13, 8, 4). See SABBATH DAYS JOURNEY. But the conduct of the Jewish armies in refusing to arm on the Sabbath, and suffering their enemies to cut them doLVALywn, certainly savored of fanaticism (1 Macc 1:2,32 sq.; 2 Macc 6:11, Josephus, Ant. 12, 6, 2, War, 2, 17, 10; Life, p. 32; comp. Plutarch, Superstit. p. 169). A parallel may be found in the Jewish steersman who left the helm at the moment of a squall because the Sabbath was beginning (Synes. Ep. 4, p. 163, ed Petav.). Yet the apprehension of the great advantage which would thus accrue to the enemy led prudent commanders to observe this rest from fighting only so far as to abstain on the Sabbath from offensive operations (1 Macc 11:34,43 sq.; Josephus, Ant. 13, 1, 3; 14, 4, 2 sq.). Marching armies halted on that day (Josephus, Ant. 13, 8, 4; comp. 14, 10, 12). The last passage seems to show that the Sabbath law was made a pretext by Jews to escape from foreign military service when they wished (see again Ant. 18, 9, 2; 10, 2; War, 4, 2, 3; Michaelis, Mos. Recht, 4, 133 sq.). Yet in the last Jewish war less caution was exercised, even in abstaining from offensive movement (Josephus, War, 2, 19, 2); and many an artifice was carried on by the aid of the Sabbath and its observances (ibid. 4, 2, 3. In this instance, it was less the fear of breaking the law than a shrewd calculation of advantage which prevented the Jews from engaging the enemy on the Sabbath).\par The Pharisees gave very minute directions on the observance of the Sabbath; and although different teachers differed in many points, yet in the New Testament period we find great rigor prevailing. The plucking of single ears of grain in passing (Matt 12:2; Mark 2:23 sq.; Luke 6:1 sq.), the healing of the sick (Matt 12:10; Mark 3:2; Luke 6:7; 13:14; John 9:14,16; Thilo, Apocr. p. 503), the walking of a cured patient with his bed (John 5:10), all were considered as desecrations of the Sabbath by the Pharisees and their disciples; although when property was in danger, many acts which were certainly waork were freely performed in case of pressing need (Matt 12:11; Luke 14:5; comp. Gemara, Shab. 128, 1); yet even in the care of cattle (comp. Luke 13:15LVALz) all work was to be shunned which was not really necessary (Shab. 24, 2 sq). The Essenes seem to have been yet stricter in observing this day. The Mishna (Shab. c. 17) has severe regulations against the removal of goods; yet certain exceptions were allowed (comp. Philo, Opp. 2, 569). On the severity of the Samaritans in this respect, see Gesen. De Theol. Samarit. p. 35 sq.; comp. Origen, Princip. 4, 17; tom. 1, p. 176). They refrained from sexual intercourse on the night of the Sabbath (Eichhorn, Repert. 13, 258). The Mishna, in the tract Shab. (2 d part), which treats the whole subject of this article, names in particular (7, 2) thirty-nine forms of labor which are forbidden on the Sabbath, each of which has, again, its variations and species. In the two-fold Gemara to this tract (the Tosiphta to the tract Shab. is found in Hebrew and Latin in Ugolini Thesaur. 17; the tract itself has been separately edited by J.B. Carpzov, Leips. 1661), and in the Rabbinical writings the matter is spun out still further and finer (see Hulsius, Theol. Jud. 1, 240 sq.; Buxtorf, Synag. Jud. c. 16; Schottgen, Hior. Hebr. 1, 121 sq.). As to the healing of the sick, the rabbins generally allowed the use of all proper remedies if life was in danger (see Mishna, Yoma, 8, 6; Schottgen, op. cit. p. 122 sq.; Danz, Christi Curatio Sabbathica Vindic. [Jen. 1699]; also in Meuschen, N.T. p. 569 sq.); but those which were only designed to make the sick more comfortable were rigorously forbidden (see, e.g. Gemara, Berachoth, p. 11. According to the Mishna [Shab. 22, 6], even a broken bone was not to be set nor dislocations poulticed on the Sabbath; yet see Maimonides, ad loc.). On the other forms of labor permitted on the Sabbath (Mishna, Shab. 24, 5) the reader may consult V.H. Hasenmuller, Opera Sabbathum Depellantia (Jen. 1708).\par The Sabbath was especially consecrated to devotion and to the law (Josephus, Ant. 16, 2, 4), and frivolous or unclean conversation was accounted a desecration of the day (Gesen. In Jesa. 2, 230). HeLVAL{nce in the synagogues everywhere on this day took place the great services of worship (Mark 1:21; 6:2; Luke 4:16,31; 6:6; 13:10; Acts 13:44; 16:13; 17:2; 18:4), with prayer and the public reading and expounding of the holy books (Luke 4:16 sq.; Acts 13:27; Josephus, Apion, 1, 22). This, however, cannot be considered as a Mosaic regulation (see Vitringa, Synag. 1, 2, 2); but see LAW. Cheerful meals were held (Luke 14:1; Philo, Opp. 2, 477. The ariston [<START GREEK>\par a&riston<END GREEK>\par ] was taken on the Sabbath about the sixth hour [Josephus, Life, p. 54]. On the three meals of the Sabbath, see Mishna, Shab. 16, 2, and Maimon. ad loc.); feast day clothing was put on (Sharbau, De Luxu Sabbatorio, in his Observ. Sacr. 3, 541 sq.); and it was never a fast day (Judg 8:6. Justin's remark [36:2], which makes it a fast, is untrue. Comp. Sueton. Aug. 76, where Ernesti's explanation does not accord with the usage of speech; Petron. Fragm. 35, 6. See contra, Maimon. Hilkoth Shab. Extr. Comp. P.T. Carpzov, De Jejun. Sabb. ex Antiq. Hebr. [Rostoch. 1741]).\par When the Jews were under foreign supremacy, except during the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes (1 Macc 1:45,48; 2 Macc 6:6), their legal Sabbath was confirmed (comp. 1 Macc 10:34; Josephus, Ant. 14, 10, 20, 21, 23, 25); and even in the composition of the civil law, a conciliatory respect was shown to it (Josephus, Ant. 16, 6, 2 and 4; Philo, Opera, 2, 569). It is still a question how far the Jewish legal administration itself regarded the Sabbath (see, among others, Tholuck, On John, p. 302 sq.; Bleek, Beitr\'e4ge z. Evangelienkritik, p. 140 sq.). The Mishna (Yom Tob, 5, 2) says expressly that no court was held on that day, nor even was a session begun the afternoon preceding, lest it might encroach upon the Sabbath (Mishna, Shab. 1, 2; comp. Gemara, Sanhed. fol. 35, 1; nor can the force of these passages be removed by Gemara, Sanhed. fol. 88, 1, even though it referred to this subject). See COUNCIL. It is remarkable that at one time the Jews themselLVAL|ves made an effort in Syria to do away with the observance of the Sabbath (Josephus, War, 7, 3, 3). This effort was aided, perhaps, by the view which the Romans took of this weekly rest, often mocking the Jews as slothful (Juvenal, 14, 105 sq.; Seneca, in Augustine, Civ. Dei, 6, 11).\par The origin of the Sabbath is usually referred to Moses by the German critics (Ewald, Gesch. Isr. 2, 142 sq.) on the ground that Gen 2:1 cannot be accepted as a testimony to its earlier institution, since this whole account of the creation, whose date and author are unknown, is plainly designed for the very purpose of presenting the Sabbath to us as an immediate divine ordinance (see Gabler, Neuer Vers. uber die mos. Schopfungsgesch. p. 38 sq.; De Wette, Krit. p. 40 sq.), just as it is often set forth in later writings in connection with the exode and with the legislation of Sinai (Ezek 20:10 sq.; Neh 9:13 sq.; comp. Deut 5:14 sq., with which Ex 16:23 agrees). Reggio, by a peculiar. explanation of Gen 2:1 sq., arrives at a distinction between the Sabbath appointed here for all mankind and that given to the Jews in their law (Zeitschrift fur d. Judenth. 1845, p. 102 sq., 121 sq.). The Sabbath is considered as a Mosaic institution also by Eusebius (H.E. 1, 4, 3; Proep. Ev. 7, 6) and most of the rabbins (Selden, Jus. Nat. et Gent. 3, 10). Among the more recent writers, this view is adopted by Spencer (Leg. Rit. 1, 4, 9 sq.); Eichhorn (Urgesch. 1, 249 sq.); Gabler (ibid. p. 58 sq.; Neuer Versuch, p. 38 sq.); Bauer (Gottesdienstl. Verfass. 2, 174 sq., in answer to Hebenstreit, De Sab. ante Leg. Mos. Existente [Lips. 1748]); Iken (Dissert. Theol. p. 26 sq.); Richter (in the Biblioth. Brem. Nova, 3, 310 sq.); Michaelis (Mos. Recht, 4, 110 sq.). See SABBATH, CHRISTIAN.\par The question may be raised whether the Sabbath was not borrowed by Moses from some other ancient people, as the Egyptians. It is not necessary to discuss the unhistoric suppositions of Philo (2, 137) and Josephus (Apion, 2, 39) that this feast was very widLVAL}ely spread among ancient nations. Yet it appears from Seneca (Ep. 95. p. 423, Bip.) and Ovid (Remed. Amor. p. 219) that a reverence for the seventh day had found an entrance among the Romans (comp. Ideler, Chron. 2, 176). Various strange opinions as to the origin of the Sabbath have been suggested which answer themselves (Plutarch, Sympos. 4, 6, 2). (On the pretended Jewish worship of Saturn, see Buttmann, Mythol. 2, 44 sq.) It is certain that the Egyptians knew the reckoning by weeks, and even began each successive week with the day of Chronos (Dion Cass. 37, 18, 19). Baur, following Tacitus (Hist. 5, 5), has connected the Sabbath with the worship of Chronos-Saturn, to whom the Romans also dedicated particularly the seventh day of the week (Tubinger Zeitschr. fur Theol. 1832, 3, 145 sq.; comp. Movers, Phoniz. p. 315); hence the Roman historians compared the Jewish Sabbath with the day of Saturn (Dion Cass. 37, 17, 18; Tibul. 1, 3, 17). His view rests on the well known representation by the Greeks and Romans of the golden age long gone by, the age of rest and equality, under Saturn, and the custom connected with it of giving the slaves a holiday at the Saturnalia (see Syrb, De Sabbatho Gentili in Temp. helvet. 2, 527 sq.; and in Ugolini Thesaur. vol. 17; comp. also Wernsdorf, Diss. de Gentil. Sabbato [Viteb. 1722]). But this theory is so fine spun that it falls to pieces at the first touch, for the passage in Dion Cassius does not do anything towards proving a naming of the days of the week after the planets (see Ideler, Chronol. 1, 180). And the Western representations of Saturn can so much the less be transferred to the East in that, even among the Romans, the day of Saturn was counted an unlucky one. Astrologically, too, the day of Saturn is the first, not the seventh, of the week. But, apart from all this, it was more natural for an agricultural people to keep as a festival the last day of the week, after men and beasts had become wearied with toil, in rest, and with ceremonies in accordance with LVAL~their religious character, particularly with sacrifices. Why should we seek a foreign model for all the Mosaic institutions? Why refer these simple observances to such far fetched and generally unsuitable explanations? (See especially Bahr, Symbol. 1, 584 sq. In answer to Von Bohlen, Genesis, p. 137, Introd. see Tuch, Genesis, p. 14 sq.)\par The Sabbath, as the basis of the Israelitish cycle of feast days, was imitated and repeated, as it were, in several other festivals; e.g. the Sabbath Year, the Seventh New Moon, and the Year of Jubilee. On the subject of the whole article, see Carpzov, Appar. p. 382 sq.; Reland, Ant. Sacr. 4, 8; Bauer, op. cit. 2, 152 sq.; Jahn, 3, 388 sq.; Gisb. Voetii Dis. Sel. 3, 1227 sq.; Bahr, Symbol. 2, 566 sq., 577 sq.\par A figurative use of the word "Sabbath" denotes a solemn festival on which servile work was proscribed; but this occurs only with respect to the great day of annual atonement (Lev 23:33). The word properly representing such an abstract idea of rest is <START HEBREW>/otB*v^<END HEBREW>\par , shabbaton, <START GREEK>\par sabbatismo/$<END GREEK>\par , sabbatism (q.v.). The term "Sabbath," however, is frequently applied to a longer hebdomadal cycle than that of the week, e.g. the sabbatic year (q.v.). The Rabbinic or orthodox Jews likewise claim that in Lev 23:11-16, <START HEBREW>tB*v^<END HEBREW>\par , Sabbath, is synonymous with <START HEBREW>js^P#<END HEBREW>\par , Passover, and accordingly they reckon Pentecost from the 16 th of Nisan, the second day of unleavened bread, instead of the Sabbath following it. See CALENDAR, JEWISH. In this they are upheld by a majority of Christian archaeologists and interpreters. The Karaites, on the contrary, contend that the word "Sabbath" in that ordinance has its regular and usual signification, namely, the seventh day of the week. The arguments advanced for the traditional view and reckoning, formidable as they at first appear, will be found, on a close examination, to be wholly inconclusive.\par (1.) It is a pLVALure assumption that the phrase <START HEBREW>tB*V^h^ tr^j(m*<END HEBREW>\par , morrow of the Sabbath, is equivalent to <START HEBREW>js^P#h^ tr^j(m*<END HEBREW>\par , morrow of the Passover. The passage in Josh 5:11, often appealed to in proof, states that on the latter day the Israelites ate the produce of Canaan (<START HEBREW>Jr#a*h* rWbu&<END HEBREW>\par , A.V. erroneously "old corn of the land"), consisting of unleavened cakes and parched ears. From this it has been inferred that, as the Passover had just been celebrated, the wave sheaf, which was a necessary preliminary to harvest (Lev 23:14), had already been offered. This, as all parties agree, could not be done before the 16 th of Nisan, and hence Keil and others unwarrantably assume that this was the day in question. But we know, from its use elsewhere (Num 23:3), that the phrase "morrow after [Heb. of] the Passover" was the day immediately succeeding the Paschal meal, i.e. the 15 th of Nisan. The wave sheaf had not therefore at that time been offered, and the Israelites could not have stood upon ceremony in eating the new grain, probably because they had not vet become settled in their possession to which the law in question was specially applicable (Lev 23:10; comp. Num 15:18).\par (2.) The definite art. in <START HEBREW>tB*V^h^<END HEBREW>\par the ordinance under consideration merely indicates it as the one Sabbath of the Paschal week, and cannot refer to any other of the Passover days in the context, which are not (either there or elsewhere) designated by this term. Nor is the word <START HEBREW>tB*v^<END HEBREW>\par , Sabbath, ever used in Biblical Hebrew in the sense of a literal week, as the Rabbinical theory assumes. The seven Sabbaths are termed fall (<START HEBREW>tomyj!T=<END HEBREW>\par , "complete") because they are exclusive of the terminus a quo, contrary to the usual Jewish practice, which is to include both extremes.\par (3.) The reckoning of Pentecost from the Sabbath proper would not disagree with the classificatiLVALon of the other Jewish feasts by terms of seven, nor tend to displace either that or the Passover in the calendar; for the other feasts were not dependent upon the Pentecost, and the fifty days would be equally regular and harmonious from whatever point reckoned.\par (4.) The weight of Jewish authority is of little account, and the accession of Christian writers is of still less, since there is known to have been an early difference of opinion and practice on this point. The two instances occurring in the New Test. history are decidedly adverse to the Rabbinical mode of computation, namely. the "second Sabbath after the first," on which Jesus passed through the fields of standing corn (Luke 6:1), See SECOND-FIRST SABBATH, and the first Pentecost of the Christian Church, which by the traditionary calendar would have fallen on the Sabbath (the seventh after that of the crucifixion), and not on Sunday, as generally admitted. See PENTECOST; See SABBATH, MORROW AFTER.\par In Luke 6:1 we have the above-noted phrase, <START GREEK>\par sa/bbaton deutero/prwton<END GREEK>\par , rendered in the A.V. "The second Sabbath after the first." It is over hasty, after a few MSS., to blot out the second word as not genuine, though even Meyer does so. Who could have inserted it? And is not the omission of a word which nobody understood easily accounted for in the few instances in which it takes place? To strike out a word simply as strange is too uncritical to be borne. The various older interpretations are collected in Wolf, Cur. 1, 619 sq.; Rus, Harm. Evang. p. 639 sq.; Paulus, Comm. 2, 32 sq. It is usually regarded as the first Sabbath after the second Easter day (comp. Lev 23:15, and the Sept.), since from this day to the Passover seven Sabbaths were reckoned (Leviticus l.c.), and these may well have been distinguished by their numbers \emdash the first, second, third, etc., after the second Easter day (Scaliger, De Emend. Temp. p. 557; Casaub. Exercit. Antibar. p. 272; Bauer, op. cit. 2, 154). Olshausen's objecLVALtions to this view do not seem to be forcible. His own explanation (following Beza and Paulus), the first Sabbath of two during a feast, is not plausible. A peculiar name would hardly be given to this; and, even if given, would be of no importance to the evangelist. Moreover, in such a case the phrase would be inappropriate at best. Credner's view (Beitr. z. Einl. ins N.T. 1, 357) is rightly answered by De Wette, On Luke, l.c. The objections made by Paulus and others to our interpretation have been well answered by Lubkert (in the Studien u. Krit. 1835, 3, 664 sq.). Yet he takes no notice of P. Ewald's suggestion (in the Neu. krit. Journ. d. Theol. 2, 480) that the phrase may easily be an abridged Hebrew expression for the second Sabbath after the second Paschal day; in which, however, the proof that such a phrase was in use in the age of Jesus is wanting. Hitzig understands it to mean the 15 th of Nisan, which, according to Lev 23:11, was considered as a Sabbath, following the 14 th, which had always been a Sabbath. This, however, is unsupported. Wieseler gives (Chronol. Synop. p. 231 sq.) an interpretation intimately connected with his whole system, that it is the first Sabbath in the second year of the seven years, reckoned from one sabbatical year to another; i.e. the first Sabbath of Nisan. Here it is assumed that a technical term was appropriated to the first Sabbath of every year in such a series of years; which is the less probable, as the civil year, with which the sabbatical year is connected (comp. Wieseler, p. 204 sq.), began in autumn. Add to this that no mode of reckoning in practical life by Sabbath years has been proved from Josephus (Ant. 14, 10, 5 and 6). nor from the Mishna. In fine, the effort of Redslob to refer this phrase to the second Sabbath after the second Easter day by the force of the word <START GREEK>\par deutero/prwton<END GREEK>\par (Hall. Lif.-Z. 1847; Int. Bl. No. 70) seems to be a mistake. See SECOND-FIRST SABBATH.\par Of equal regard with the Sabbath, as a day LVALof entire rest, was the first Paschal day and the last (Lev 23:39), while the great day of reconciliation was a Sabbath of Sabbaths (16:31; 23:32). Accordingly, some would understand the words in John 19:31 (<START GREEK>\par hn mega/lh h( h(me/ra e)kei/nou tou= sabba/tou<END GREEK>\par , rendered in the A.V. "for that Sabbath day was a high day") of the first Paschal day. But a proper weekly Sabbath seems certainly to be meant, in harmony with the entire relation of John; e.g. with 21:1. It is called a great or high day because the first Paschal day fell upon it (see Carpzov, App. p. 384; Bleek, Beitr. z. Evangelien-Kritik, p. 31 sq.).\par The Sabbath is kept by the modern Jews as a great festival with every demonstration of joy, taking the idea from Isa 18:13, 14, "If thou turn away thy foot from the Sabbath, from doing thy pleasure on my holy day, and call the Sabbath a delight, the holy of the Lord, honorable . . . then shalt thou delight thyself in the Lord, and I will cause thee to ride upon the high places of the earth, "etc. The Sabbath is held from evening to evening (Lev 23:32), but they begin it half an hour before sunset on Friday, and prolong it till half an hour after sunset on Saturday, for the benefit of the souls of the damned, who, they believe, are allowed on that day suspension of their sufferings. On Friday afternoon they prepare all the food, etc., that may be wanted, and lay out their best clothes to wear in honor of "Queen Sabbath." Some opulent Jews keep magnificent dresses to be worn on the Sabbath alone. As soon as the Sabbath commences, the mistress of the house lights the Sabbath lamp, which is filled with pure olive oil, and has from four to seven wicks, and lays on the table the Sabbath bread, shaped like a twisted plait, made of the finest wheaten flour, and sprinkled with poppy seeds. They go to the synagogue, and after their devotions wish each other "a good Sabbath." At supper, the master of the house repeats the commemoration of the Sabbath out of Gen 2, "Thus thLVAL"e heavens were finished," etc.; thanks God for the Sabbath, blesses the wine, and passes it round. They rise later than usual on the Sabbath morning; and at the synagogue they use some additional devotions, with a commemoration of the dead. They think it right to eat at least three meals on the Sabbath, because the word "today" relating to the Sabbath is repeated three times in Ex 16:25. So convinced are they that one way of honoring the Sabbath is by great feasting that they sometimes fast the preceding day to enable them to eat the more at the Sabbath meals (Buxtorf, Syn. Jud. c. 15). There is a Jewish maxim, that he is greatly to be commended who honors the Sabbath exceedingly in his body, in his dress, and in eating and drinking. Such are the principal features of the carnal views of the Sabbath from which the early fathers wished to wean the Jewish converts. A full account of the sabbatical ceremonies observed at present by the Jews may be found in Buxtorf's Synagoga Judaica, and in Picard's Religious Ceremonies. \par See, in general, Journ. of Sac. Lit. Oct. 1851, p. 70 sq.; Ball, Horoe Sabbaticoe (Lond. 1853); and the monographs cited by Volbeding, Index Programmatum, p. 112; and by Darling, Cyclopaedia Bibliographica (see Index). See also the literature referred to under the article following and See LORD'S DAY.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SABBATHAI ZEBI\par Sabbathai Zebi\par (i.e. <START HEBREW>yb!x=<END HEBREW>\par , the gazelle, or beauty, a family adjunct), a famous Jewish impostor, was born in Smyrna, July, 1641. When a child he was sent to a Rabbinic school and instructed in the whole cycle of Rabbinic lore. When fifteen years of age, he betook himself to the study of the Cabala, rapidly mastered its mysteries, and became peerless in his knowledge of "those things which were revealed and those things which were hidden;" and at the age of eighteen obtained the honorable appellation of sage (<START HEBREW><kj<END HEBREW>\par ), delivering public lectures, and expounding the divine law and the esoteric doctrine before crowded audiences. At the age of twenty-four, he revealed to his disciples that he was the Messiah, the son of David, the true Redeemer, and that he was to redeem and deliver Israel from their captivity among the Christians and Mohammedans. At the same time he publicly pronounced the Tetragrammaton as it is written, to do which, it is well known, was not permitted, save to the high priest during the existence of the Temple, when he performed service in the Holy of Holies on the day of atonement, thus braving the rule that "the penalty of death is pronounced on him who utters the Tetragrammaton publicly." When the sad intelligence reached the sages of Smyrna, they sent to him two messengers of the Beth-din (ecclesiastical tribunal) to warn him, and to caution him that if he should so trespass again they would excommunicate him, and even consider it a meritorious action for any one to take his life. But Sabbathai replied that he was allowed to do so, being the anointed of God. Hearing this, the sages of Smyrna were much affrighted, and having deliberated together what to do, they decreed unanimously that he was guiltyLVAL of death for two reasons: firstly, because he had uttered the name of the Lord according to its letters, and, secondly, because he pretended to be the Messiah. Therefore they excommunicated him, and proclaimed it a meritorious action for any one to slay him, and the fine imposed on the slayer by the laws of the Mohammedans they promised to pay. Now, when Sabbathai saw that evil was determined against him, he fled from Smyrna to Salonica, where he was received with great honor, his evil deeds having not yet been known there. Many disciples also gathered around him to learn the science of the Cabala, and all the inhabitants of Salonica revered him and loved him more than any other man. But after having been there for a considerable time, he fell again into his former error, and repeated his former transgression, uttering the name of the Lord according to its letters in the presence of his disciples; and when his pupils asked him wherefore he did so, he replied that he was the anointed, and that it was therefore lawful for him to do so. The sages of Salonica, having heard of this repeated offense, sent to him two messengers of the Beth-din, ordering him to quit Salonica, otherwise he would be put to death, because he had wrought folly in Israel. Knowing that the Jews had more power at Salonica than in any other country, he secretly fled to Athens, and thence into Morea. But he found no refuge there, for the inhabitants of Morea, being informed that he had been expelled from Salonica, also drove him away. He then went through Greece to Alexandria, from this city to Cairo, and thence to the Holy Land, as far as Jerusalem, where he remained for several years, teaching the Cabala, proclaiming himself as the Messiah, anointing prophets, and converting thousands upon thousands. So numerous were the believers in him that in many places trade was entirely stopped; the Jews wound up their affairs, disposed of their chattels, and made themselves ready to be redeemed from their captivity and led by Sabbathai Zebi <LVALLback to Jerusalem. The consuls of Europe were ordered to inquire into this extraordinary movement, and the governors of the East reported to the sultan the cessation of commerce. Sabbathai Zebi was then arrested by order of the sultan Mohammed IV, and taken before him at Adrianople. The sultan spoke to him as follows: "I am going to test thy Messiahship. Three poisoned arrows shall be shot into thee, and if they do not kill thee, I too will believe that thou art the Messiah." He saved himself by embracing Islamism in the presence of the sultan, who gave him the name Effendi, and appointed him Kapidji-Bashi. Sabbathai died Sept. 10, 1676, after having ruined thousands upon thousands of Jewish families. The literature on this pseudo-Messiah is very rich. See Furst, Bibl. Jud. 3, 184 sq.; Gratz, Gesch. d. Juden, 10, 205 sq.; note 3, p. 23 sq.; Jost, Gesch. d. Judenth. u. s. Secten, 3, 153 sq.; Ginsburg, Kabbalah, p. 139; Basnage, Histoire des Juifs (Taylor's transl.), p. 701; Theologisches Universal- Lexikon, s.v. Milman, Hist. of the Jews, 3, 369 sq.; Da Costa, Israel and the Gentiles, p. 475 sq.; Schmucker, Hist. of the Modern Jews, p. 226 sq. See MESSIAHS, FALSE.\par B. P. \par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVALT {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SABBATIC RIVER\par \par Sabbatic River,\par \par a stream of Palestine, described by ancient writers as flowing only on the Sabbath day (Reland, Paloest. p. 291). Josephus locates it between Arce and Raphanaca (War, 7, 24). Thomson thinks that the intermittent fountain of Nebo el-Fuar, in the valley of Mar Jirius, west of Kulat Husn, near Tripoli, may have been the origin of the fountain, as it seems to contain a siphon for carrying off the overflow of the water (Land and Book, 1, 496 sq.).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SABBATIANS\par \par Sabbatians,\par \par a Judaizing section of the Novatians, who owed their origin to Sabbatius, a presbyter that had been ordained by Marcian (Socrat. Hist. Eccl. 5, 20; 7, 15). They assumed the name of Protopaschites, and refused to communicate with any but those who adopted with them the Quartodeciman rule in regard to the paschal festival. The Sabbatians were included among heretics who were condemned in A.D. 381 by the seventh canon of the Council of Constantinople (Mansi Concil. 3, 563).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SABBATICAL YEAR\par Sabbatical Year,\par the septennial rest for the land from all tillage and cultivation enjoined in the Mosaic law (Ex 23:10,11; Lev 25:2-7; Deut 15:1-11; 31:10-13; comp. Josephus, Ant. 3, 12, 3). The regulation appears to have been greatly neglected during the Hebrew occupancy of Palestine (2 Chron 36:21).\par I. Names and their Signification. \emdash In the Mosaic legislation this festival is called by four names, each of which expresses some feature connected with the observance thereof. Thus it is called \emdash \par (1) <START HEBREW>/otB*v^ tb^v=<END HEBREW>\par , Rest of entire Rest, or Sabbath of Sabbatism (Lev 25:4; A.V. "Sabbath of rest"), because the land is to have a complete rest from all tillage and cultivation;\par (2) <START HEBREW>tn^v= /otB*v^<END HEBREW>\par , the Year of Sabbatism or Rest (Lev 25:5, "year of rest'), because the rest is to extend through the year;\par (3) <START HEBREW>hF*m!v=<END HEBREW>\par , or more fully <START HEBREW>hF*m!V=h^ tn^v=<END HEBREW>\par , "Release," Remission, or "the Year of Release" (Deut 15:1,2,9), because on it all debts were remitted; and\par (4) <START HEBREW>ub^V@h^ tn^v=<END HEBREW>\par , "the Seventh Year" (Deut 15:9), because it is to be celebrated every seventh year, for which reason it is called in the Hebrew canons <START GREEK>\par kat) e)coch/n<END GREEK>\par , <START HEBREW>tyu!yb!v!<END HEBREW>\par , the Seventh (i.e. <START HEBREW>hn*v*<END HEBREW>\par , Year), as is also the name of the tractate in the Mishna (Shebiith) treating on the sabbatical year. Josephus styles it the <START GREEK>\par e(bdomatiko\\$<END GREEK>\par or <START GREEK>\par sabbatiko\\$ e)niauto/$<END GREEK>\par (Ant. 14, 10, 6; 16, 2; 15, 1, 2); once <START GREEK>\par a)rgo\\n e&to$<END GREEK>\par (War, 1, 2, 4).\parLVAL II. The Laws connected with this Festival. \emdash Like the year of jubilee, the laws respecting the sabbatical year embrace three main enactments \emdash \par (1) rest for the soil;\par (2) care for the poor and for animals; and\par (3) remission of debts.\par The first enactment, which is comprised in Ex 23:10,11; Lev 25:2-5, enjoins that the soil, the vineyards, and the olive yards are to have perfect rest; there is to be no tillage or cultivation of any sort, at least in Palestine (comp. Tacit. Hist. 5, 4, 3). What constitutes tillage and cultivation, and how much of labor was regarded as transgressing the law, may be seen from the following definitions of the Hebrew canons: "The planting even of trees which bear no fruit is not allowed on the sabbatical year; nor may one cut off withered or dried up boughs of trees, nor break off the withered leaves and branches, nor cover the tops with (lust, nor smoke under them to kill the insects, nor besmear the plants with any kind of soil to protect them from being eaten by the birds when they are tender, nor besmear the unripe fruit, etc., etc. And whoso does one of these things in the sabbatical year is to receive the stripes of a transgressor" (Maimonides, Jad Ha-Chezaka Hilkoth Shemita Ve-Jobel, 1, 5). Anything planted wittingly or unwittingly had to be plucked up by its roots (Mishna, Terum. 2, 3). Thus it was a regulation requiring all the land periodically to lie fallow (Philo, Opp. 2, 207, 277, 631), and as a year of rest corresponded with the Sabbath or day of rest (ibid. 2, 631; Josephus, l.c.; War, 1, 2, 4; Tacit. l.c.); in fact, a Sabbath year, just as the Essenes, besides the seventh day, observed a sabbath of weeks each seventh week (Philo, Opp. 2, 481).\par The second enactment, which is contained in Ex 23:11; Lev 25:5-7, enjoins that the spontaneous growth (<START HEBREW>j^yp!s*<END HEBREW>\par ) of the fields or of trees (comp. Isa 37:30) is to be for the free use of the poor, hirelings, strangers, servants, and cattle (Ex 23:11;LVAL Lev 25:5-7; comp. Mishna, Edayoth, 5, 1). This law is thus defined by the Jewish canons: "He who locks up his vineyard, or hedges in his field, or gathers all the fruit into his house in the sabbatical year, breaks this positive commandment. Everything is to be left common, and every man has a right to everything in every place, as it is written 'that the poor of thy people may eat' (Ex 23:11). One may only bring into his house a little at a time, according to the manner of taking things that are in common" (Maimonides, ibid. 4, 24). "The fruit of the seventh year, however, may only be eaten by man as long as the same kind is found in the field; for it is written 'and for the cattle and for the beast that are in thy land shall all the increase thereof be meat' (Lev 25:7). Therefore, as long as the animals eat the same kind in the field thou mayest eat of what there is of it in the house; and if the animal has consumed it all in the field, thou art bound to remove this kind from the house into the field" (Maimonides, ibid. 7, 1). The people, who are enjoined to live upon the harvest of the preceding year, and the spontaneous growth of the sabbatical year, are promised an especially fruitful harvest to precede the fallow year as a reward for obeying the injunction (Lev 25:20-22). That the fields yielded a crop in the sabbatical year, and even in the second fallow year \emdash i.e. in the year of jubilee \emdash has been shown in the art. JUBILEE YEAR.\par The third enactment, which is contained in Deut 15:1-3, enjoins the remission of debts in the sabbatical year. The exceptions laid down are in the case of a foreigner, and that of there being no poor in the land. This latter, however, it is straightway said, is what will never happen. But though debts might not be claimed, it is not said that they might not be voluntarily paid; and it has been questioned whether the release of the seventh year was final or merely lasted through the year. This law is defined by the ancient Hebrew canons as follows: LVALThe sabbatical year cancels every debt, whether lent on a bill or not. It does not cancel accounts for goods; daily wages for labor which may be performed in the sabbatical year, unless they have been converted into a loan; or the legal fines imposed upon one who committed a rape, or was guilty of seduction (Ex 22:15,16), or slander, or any judicial penalties; nor does it set aside a debt contracted on a pledge, or on a <START HEBREW>lWBs=orP=<END HEBREW>\par = <START GREEK>\par pro\\$ boulh=|<END GREEK>\par (or <START GREEK>\par boulh/n<END GREEK>\par ) \emdash i.e. declaration made before the court of justice at the time of lending not to remit the debt in the sabbatical year. The formula of this legal declaration was as follows: "I, A B, deliver to you, the judges of the district C, the declaration that I may call in at any time I like all debts due to me," and it was signed either by the judges or witnesses. If this Prosbul was antedated, it was legal, but it was invalid if postdated. If one borrowed money from five different persons, a Prosbul was necessary from each individual; but if, on the contrary, one lent money to five different persons, one Prosbul was sufficient for all. This Prosbul was first introduced by Hillel (q.v.) the Great (born about B.C. 75), because he found that the warning contained in Deut 15:9 was disregarded: the rich would not lend to the poor for fear of the sabbatical year, which seriously impeded commercial and social intercourse (Mishna, Shebiith, 10, 1-5; Gittin, 4, 3). This shows beyond the shadow of a doubt that the release of the seventh year did not simply last through the seventh year, as some will have it, but was final. The doctors before and in the time of Christ virtually did away with this law of remitting debts by regarding it as a meritorious act on the part of the debtor not to avail himself of the Mosaic enactment, and pay his debts irrespective of the sabbatical year. But not glaringly to counteract the law, these doctors enacted that the credLVALitor should say, "In accordance with the sabbatical year, I remit thee the debt;" whereunto the debtor had to reply, "I nevertheless wish to pay it," and the creditor then accepted the payment (Mishna, Shebiith, 10, 8). As the Mosaic law excludes the foreigner from the privilege of claiming the remission of his debts in the sabbatical year (Deut 15:3), the ancient Jewish canons enacted that even if any Israelite borrows money from a proselyte whose children were converted to Judaism with him, he need not legally repay the debt to his children in case the proselyte dies, because the proselyte, in consequence of his conversion, is regarded as having severed all his family ties, and this dissolution of the ties of nature sets aside mutual inheritance, even if the children professed Judaism with the father. Still the sages regarded it as a meritorious act if the debts were paid to the children (Mishna, Shebiith, 10, 9). It is often said, too, that in the sabbatical year all slaves of Hebrew birth were freed; but the words in Ex 21:2 (comp. Jer 34:14 sq.) require only that they be freed in the seventh year of their servitude (Josephus, Ant. 16, 1, 1). Deut 15:12 no more relates to the law of the sabbatical year than ver. 19 sq. (comp. Ranke, Pentat. 2, 362), and where the sabbatical year is expressly treated of \emdash as in Lev 25 nothing is said of such manumission. Nor does Josephus (Ant. 3, 12, 3) mention it. Leviticus 34:8 does not refer at all to this institution (yet see Hitzig, ad loc.), and ver. 14 refers only to the law in Ex 21:2. See RELEASE.\par III. Time, Observance, and Limit of the Sabbatical Year. \emdash The sabbatical year, like the year of jubilee, began on the first day of the civil new year =the first of the month Tisri (Maimonides, l.c. 4, 9). See NEW YEAR. But though this was the time fixed for the celebration of the sabbatical year during the period of the second Temple, yet the tillage and cultivation of certain fields and gardens had already to be left off in the sixth year. TLVALhus it was ordained that fields upon which trees were planted were not to be cultivated after the feast of Pentecost of the sixth year (Mishna, Shebiith, 1, 1-8), while the cultivation of corn fields was to cease from the feast of Passover (ibid. 2, 1). Since the destruction of the Temple, however, the sabbatical year, or, more properly, cessation from tillage and cultivation of all kinds, does not begin till the feast of New Year. According to the Mosaic legislation, the laws of the sabbatical year were to come into operation when the children of Israel had possession of the promised land; and the Talmud, Maimonides, etc., tell us that the first sabbatical year was celebrated in the twenty-first year after they entered Canaan, as the conquest of it recorded in Josh 14:10 occupied seven years, and the division thereof between the different tribes mentioned in Josh 18, etc., occupied seven years more, whereupon they had to cultivate it six years, and on the seventh year \emdash the twenty-first after entering therein \emdash the first sabbatical year was celebrated (Babylon Talmud, Erachan, 12 b; Maimonides, l.c. 10, 2). On the feast of Tabernacles of the sabbatical year, certain portions of the law were read in the Temple before the whole congregation (Deut 31:10-13). As the Pentateuchal enactment assigns the prelection of the law to the priests and college of presbyters (ibid.) \emdash viz. the spiritual and civil heads of the congregation (hence the singular <START HEBREW>ar*q=T!<END HEBREW>\par , "thou shalt read this law before all Israel") the Hebrew canons ordained that the high priest, and after the return from Babylon the king, should perform this duty. The manner in which it was read by the monarch is thus described in the Mishna: "At the close of the first day of the feast of Tabernacles in the eighth year \emdash i.e. at the termination of the seventh fallow year a wooden platform was erected in the outer court, whereon he sat, as it is written, 'at the end of the seventh year on the fLVALestival' (ver. 10). Thereupon the superintendent of the synagogue took the book of the law and gave it to the head of the synagogue; the head of the synagogue then gave it to the head of the priests, the head of the priests again gave it to the high priest, and the high priest finally handed it to the king; the king stood up to receive it, but read it sitting. He read \emdash \par (1) Deut 1:1-6,3 (<START HEBREW>um? du <yrbdh hla<END HEBREW>\par );\par (2) Deut 6:4-8 (<START HEBREW>um?<END HEBREW>\par );\par (3) Deut 11:13-22 (<START HEBREW>uwm? <ya hyhw<END HEBREW>\par );\par (4) Deut 14:22-15, 23 (<START HEBREW>r?ut d?u<END HEBREW>\par );\par (5) Deut 26:12-19 (<START HEBREW>r?ul hlkt yk<END HEBREW>\par );\par (6) Deut 17:14-20 (<START HEBREW>t?rpilmh<END HEBREW>\par ); and\par (7) Deut 27:28 (<START HEBREW>twllqw twkrk h?rph lk rmwg? du<END HEBREW>\par ).\par The king then concluded with the same benediction which the high priest pronounced, except that he substituted the blessing of the festivals for the absolution of sins" (Mishna, Sota, 7, 8). This benediction forms to the present day a part of the blessing pronounced by the maphtir, or the one who is called to the reading of the lesson from the prophets after the reading of the lesson from the law, and is given in an English translation in the art. HAPHTAARH of this Cyclopoedia, beginning with the words "For the law, for the divine service," etc. The sabbatical year, however, was only binding upon the inhabitants of Palestine (Kiddushin, 1, 9; Orlah, 3, 9), the limits of which were determined on the east by the desert of Arabia, on the west by the sea, on the north by Amana, while on the south the boundary was doubtful (comp. Geiger, Lehr-und Lesebuch zur Sprache der Mishna, [Breslau, 1845], 2, 75, etc.).\par As to the obedience to this law, ancient Jewish tradition tells us that it was never kept before the exile, and that it is for this reason that the Jews were seventy years in the Babylonian captivity, to give to the land tLVALhe seventy years of which it was deprived during the seventy sabbatical years, or the 430 years between the entrance into Canaan and the captivity, as it is written (2 Chron 36:20,21), "Until the land had enjoyed her Sabbaths [i.e. sabbatical years], for as long as she lay desolate she kept Sabbath to fulfill threescore and ten years [i.e. sabbatical years]" (comp. Shabbath, 13, a; Seder Odom, c. 26; Rashi on 2 Chron 36:20). After the captivity, however, when all the neglected laws were more rigidly observed (see Neh 10:31), the sabbatical year was duly kept, as is evident from the declaration in 1 Macc 6:49 that "they came out of the city, because they had no victuals there to endure the siege, it being a year of rest for the land," from the fact that both Alexander the Great and Caius Caesar exempted the Jews from tribute on the seventh year, because it was unlawful for them to sow seed or reap the harvest (Josephus, Ant. 14, 10, 6), and from the sneers of Tacitus about the origin of this festival (Hist. 5, 2, 4), as well as from the undoubted records and the post-exilian minute regulations about the sabbatical year contained in the ancient Jewish writings. According to 1 Macc 6:53, the one hundred and fiftieth year of the Seleucid eras was a sabbatical year (Josephus, Ant. 13, 8, 1, 16, 12; 15, 1, 2; War, 1, 2, 4; comp. Hitzig, Isaiah p. 433; Von Bohlen, Genesis p. 138 sq., Einleit.). The Samaritans observed it (Josephus, Ant. 11, 8, 6). St. Paul, in reproaching the Galatians with their Jewish tendencies, taxes them with observing years as well as days and months and times (Gal 4:10), from which we must infer that the teachers who communicated to them those tendencies did more or less the like themselves. Another allusion in the New Test. to the sabbatical year is perhaps to be found in the phrase <START GREEK>\par e)n sabba/tw| deuteromrw/tw|<END GREEK>\par (Luke 6:1). Various explanations have been given of the term, one of them being that it denotes the first Sabbath of the second year in theLVAL cycle (Wieseler, quoted by Alford, vol. 1). See SECOND-FIRST SABBATH \par IV. Design of the Regulation. \emdash The spirit of this law is the same as that of the weekly Sabbath. Both have a beneficent tendency, limiting the rights and checking the sense of property; the one puts in God's claims on time, the other on the land. The land shall "keep a Sabbath unto the Lord." "The land is mine." The sabbatical year opened in the sabbatical month. It was thus, like the weekly Sabbath, no mere negative rest, but was to be marked by high and holy occupation, and connected with sacred reflection and sentiment. At the completion of a week of sabbatical years, the sabbatical scale received its completion in the year of jubilee.\par This singular institution has the aspect, at first sight, of total impracticability. This, however, wears off when we consider that in no year was the owner allowed to reap the whole harvest (Lev 19:9; 23:22). Unless, therefore, the remainder was gleaned very carefully, there may easily have been enough left to insure such spontaneous deposit of seed as in the fertile soil of Syria would produce some amount of crop in the succeeding year, while the vines and olives would of course yield their fruit of themselves. Moreover, it is clear that the owners of land were to lay by corn in previous years for their own and their families' wants. This is the unavoidable inference from Lev 25:20-22. Though the right of property was in abeyance during the sabbatical year, it has been suggested that this only applied to the fields, and not to the gardens attached to houses. The great physical advantage aimed at in the sabbatical year was doubtless that the land lay fallow, thus increasing the fruitfulness of the six years of cultivation, especially in that ancient period when the artificial use of fertilizers was unknown. But this rest was experienced likewise by men and cattle. Other advantages of more or less importance have been suggested: the encouragement of the chase (comp. Lev 25:7); thFLVALVe securing of the land against famine (Michaelis in the Comment. Soc. Gotting. Oblat. [Brem. 1763], 5, 9; Mos. Recht, 2, 39 sq.); the prevention of exportation and foreign trade (Hug, Zeitschr. fur das Erzbisth. Freiburg, 1, 10 sq.). On the other hand, scarcity did sometimes occur during the sabbatical year (1 Macc 6:49,53; Josephus, Ant. 14, 16, 2), and it is certain that the institution had various inconveniences incident to it (comp. Grever, Comment. Mis. Syntagma [Olden. 1794]. p. 27 sq.; Von Raumer, Vorles. uber alte Gesch. 1, 138 sq.), which, however, are certainly exaggerated by Von Raumer. Hullmann, too, has been carried too far by his zeal against this institution (Staatsveofass. der Israelit. p. 163 sq.).\par V. Literature. \emdash Mishna, Shebiith; the Talmud on this Mishna; Maimonides, Jad Ha-Chezaka Hilkoth Shemita Ve-Jobel; Michaelis, Commentaries on the Laws of Moses, arts. 74-77 (English transl. [Lond. 1814], 1, 387-419); Baihr, Symbolik des mosaischen Cultus (Heidelb. 1839), 2, 569 sq., 601 sq.; Maimonides, Tr. de Jurib. Anni Sept. Vertit Notisque illustr. J. H. Maius (Frankf.-on-the-Main, 1708); Carpzov, Appar. p. 442 sq.; Winer, Realworterb. 2, 349.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVALF{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SABBATINI, ANDREA\par \par Sabbatini, Andrea,\par \par called Andrea da Salerno, an Italian painter, was born at Salerno about 1480. He studied at Rome under Raphael, and, though he remained there but a year, was one of the best imitators of Raphael's style. Among his numerous works at Naples are the frescos and scenes of Santa Maria della Grazia. His best works are at Gaeta and Salerno, and his Visitation may be seen at the Louvre, in Paris. He died in 1545. \emdash Hoefer, Nouv. Biog. Generale, s.v.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SABBATIER, PIERRE\par \par Sabbatier, Pierre,\par \par a French Benedictine, was born at Poitiers in 1682. In 1700 he took the habit of St. Benedict at the abbey of St. Faron de Meaux. He was employed by prince Bruinart to edit the fifth volume of the Annales Benedictines. At this time he also began to publish the ancient version of the Scriptures, commonly called the Italian Version. The first edition had not appeared when, on account of the part he had taken in the Jansenist quarrels, he was exiled to the abbey of St. Nicaise at Rheims. He did not live to see the work completed, his death occurring on March 24, 1742, but it was finally published by Ballard and Vincent de la Rue under the title of Bibliorum Sacrorum Latinoe Versiones Antiquoe, seu Vetus Italica (1743).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVAL{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SABBATINI, LORENZO\par \par Sabbatini, Lorenzo,\par \par called Lorenzino da Bologna, another Italian painter, was born about 1533 at Bologna. Being called to Rome under the pontificate of Gregory XIII, he painted in the royal hall of the Vatican Faith Triumphing over Unbelief; and other frescos in the Pauline Chapel. These gained for him the position of superintendent of the works in the Vatican, which he held till his death. The principal pictures of Sabbatini are a Madonna, in the Louvre; the Marriage of St. Catharine, at Dresden; and the Virgin Enthtroned, at Berlin. He died in 1577.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVAL&{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SABBATISM\par \par Sabbatism\par \par (\par <START GREEK>sabbatismo/$\par <END GREEK>, Heb 2:9, A.V." rest"), a repose from labor, like that enjoyed by God at creation; a type of the eternal Sabbath of heaven. See REST.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SABBATINI, LUIGI ANTONIO\par \par Sabbatini, Luigi Antonio,\par \par an Italian composer of music, was born at Albano in 1739. While young he joined the Order of St. Francis, and received his musical education in the convents at Rome, Bologna, and Padua. His principal teacher was Villotti, whose system of harmony he adopted. He was made musical director of the church of the Twelve Apostles at Rome, and retained the position till 1780, when he took the place of Villotti in the church of St. Antony at Padua. He composed much sacred music, and was the author of several musical works-Elementi Teorici della Musica (1789): \emdash Vera Idea delle Musicali Numeriche Segnature (1795) \emdash besides a Life of Villotti, and an edition of the Psalms of Marcello. He died at Padua Jan. 29, 1809.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVAL{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SABBATUM MAGNUM\par Sabbatum Magnum\par (great Sabbath). The day before Easter was designated as the high Sabbath, partly in imitation of the primitive institution, and partly in token of respect for the time in which our Savior lay in the grave. This was the only Sabbath eventually continued in the Church and distinguished bI peculiar solemnities. It was set apart as a strict fast, probably with reference to the words of Christ, "When the Bridegroom is taken away from them, in those days shall they fast." It was called the Easter vigil, and was among the earliest of those established by Christians. From Lactantius, Jerome, and other Christian writers we learn that the early Christians expected the second coming of our Lord on this night, and prepared themselves for it by fasting, prayer, and other spiritual exercises. The Easter vigil was distinguished by the lighting of a large taper (cerers paschalis), signifying the resurrection of our Lord, and the consequent rejoicing of the Church; by the baptism of catechumens, particularly in the Greek Church; and by the reading of proper lessons, which took place immediately before the celebration of the baptism. The fast was continued till cock-crowing the next morning, which was supposed to be the time of the resurrection. In the Latin Church the Easter vigil was suppressed, in consequence of the numerous abuses practiced and the injury to the morals of young people.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SABELLIUS\par Sabellius,\par the author of a heretical doctrine concerning the nature of the Trinity, which disturbed the Church in the 3 d century, and has occasionally reappeared, under modified forms, even down to modern times. Sabellius, according to Hippolytus (Philosophoumena), spent some time at Rome in the beginning of the 3 d century, and was gained by Callistus to patripassianism. Subsequently he appears as a presbyter of Ptolemais, in Egypt. There his doctrine assumed a modified form, and made such progress in the Church that Dionysius, bishop of Alexandria, excommunicated him at a council in that city ( A.D. 261), and opposed him so earnestly as to almost fall into the opposite error of a hypostatical independence of the Father and the Son. Thereupon the Sabellians complained of that bishop to Dionysius of Rome, who held a council on the subject in 262, and controverted Sabellianism in a special treatise, taking care also to refute subordinationism and tritheism. The bishop of Alexandria retracted his utterances on these last points. Thus this feature of the strife was largely allayed until the age of Arius, half a century later.\par Sabellius is by far the most original and ingenious of the so called Monarchians. His system is known to us only from a few fragments imperfectly preserved in Athanasius and other fathers. It has been carefully discussed, and even partially revived, by Schleiermacher in modern times (see Schaff, Church History, p. 292-294). The beginnings of Sabellianism are found in Noetus, though there is no evidence of any historical connection between Noetus and Sabellius. The system seems rather to have sprung out of Judaizing and Gnostic tendencies which were indigenous to Egypt. Sabellius held the Jewish position of a strict monotheism, recognizing only a single divinLVALe substance and a single hypostasis, which are but two words for the same thing. In themselves they constitute the monad. As simple substance, the monad is "the silent God," i.e. it is inoperative and unproductive. It becomes active only through revelation and development, which are sometimes conceived of as an unfolding, sometimes as a speaking. The first form of Sabellianism seems to have held merely to a dyad, to wit, God simple and God speaking, that is, God and the Logos. But this earlier form soon disappears, and gives place to a triad. Thus the monad evolves itself as a triad, as three divine persons, but not in the Nicene sense. The one divine substance simply assumes three forms (the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost) in its threefold relation to the world. This is not, however, simply three appellations, but it is three successive forms of manifestation of the one divine substance. In illustration of this, Sabellius compares the Father to the visible globe of the sun, the Son to its illuminating effects, and the Spirit to its warming influence, while the sun, per se, would correspond to the simple divine substance. To the first form of manifestation (the Father) is attributed the giving of the law, and in general the whole pre-Christian economy. Thereupon ensued the second form, the incarnation, in which God accomplished our objective redemption. Thereafter he appears under a third phase, the Spirit of sanctification, which exerts its efficiency in the hearts of believers. As the three manifestations are conceived of as successive, so, also, are they but temporary and transitory. The divine substance does not manifest itself simultaneously in three forms, but as each new manifestation is made the previous one ceases; and when, finally, all three stages have been passed, the triad will again return into the monad, and the divine substance will again be all and in all. Thus appears the pantheistic tendency of Sabellianism as a whole. God is the abstract substance which evolves itself into thLVALe world of reality, traverses the stage of finite life, and eventually retires within itself. The "silent" God speaks forth in the universe, and then returns back into silence. Some of the fathers traced the doctrine of Sabellius to the Stoic system. The only common element, however, is the pantheistic expansion and contraction of the divine nature immanent in the world. Kindred ideas are also found in Pythagoreanism, in the Gospel of the Egyptians, and in the Pseudo-Clementine Homilies. But this does not affect the vigorous originality of Sabellius. His theory broke the way for the Nicene Church doctrine by its full rejection of subordinationism, and by its complete coordination of the three persons. He differs from the orthodox view by his denial of the trinity of essence and the permanence of the threefold manifestation, thus making of the Father, Son, and Spirit simply a transient series of phenomena, which fulfil their mission, and then return into the abstract one divine substance.\par See Athanasius, Contra Arianos Oratio, 3, 4; De Synodis, c. 7; Philastrius, De Hoeres post Christi Passionem, lib. 26; Theodoret, Hoeret. Fab. Comnpend. 2, 9; Augustine, De Hoeres. lib. 41; Basil, Epist. 210, 214; Tillemont, Memoires, 4, 237; Mosheim, De Rebus Christian. saec. 3, \'a7 38; Neander, Church Hist. (Rose's ed.), 2, 276; Milman, Hist. of Latin Christianity, 2, 429; Schleiermacher, Ueber den Gegensatz der Sabellianischen and athanasianischen Vorstellung von der Trinitdt; Herzog, Real-Encykl. 13, 214-216.\par J. P. L. \par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVAL` {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SABINIANUS\par \par Sabinianus,\par \par Pope, was a native of Volterra, and was elected bishop of Rome after the death of Gregory I, or the Great, Sept. 13, A.D. 604. He had been employed on a mission to the court of Phocas, the usurper of the Eastern empire. He is said to have shown himself avaricious and fond of hoarding, and to have thereby incurred the popular hatred. Sabinianus died in about eighteen months after his election (Feb. 22, A.D. 606), and was succeeded, after a vacancy of nearly one year, by Boniface III, the first bishop of Rome who was acknowledged by the imperial court of Constantinople as primate of the whole Church.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SABI\par \par Sa'bi\par \par [or rather SABI'E, as in the earliest editions of the A.V.] (\par <START GREEK>Sabih/\par <END GREEK>, v.r. \par <START GREEK>Sabei/n\par <END GREEK>), given in 1 Esd 5:34 as the head of one of the families of "Solomon's servants" who returned from Jerusalem; apparently a false Graecism for the ZEBAIM (q.v.) of the Heb. lists (Ezra 2:57; Neh 7:59).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SABIANS\par Sabians\par (sometimes confounded with Saboeans), a very ancient sect, said to be named after Sabi, son of Enoch, reputed to have been the founder of their religion in its original and purest form. Their creed comprehended the worship of one God, the Governor and Creator of all things, who was to be addressed through a mediator, which office was to be performed by pure and invisible spirits. An admiration of the heavenly bodies, and an undue idea of their influence over earthly objects, soon produced an idolatrous worship of the heavenly luminaries, in which they conceived that the mediative intelligences resided. At first the Sabians worshipped towards the planets, as the residences of the mediating spirits between God and man; hence soon arose star worship. Then they made images to represent the stars, in which, after consecration, they imagined the intelligences came to reside; they named the images after the planets, and hence arose idolatry and its corruptions. They taught that the sun and moon were superior deities and the stars inferior ones; that the souls of the wicked were punished for nine thousand years, and then pardoned. They highly valued agriculture and cattle, and it was unlawful to kill the latter. The principal seats of Sabianism were Harran and "Ur of the Chaldees." Maimonides says that Abraham was originally a Sabian, till he was converted and left Chaldaea. Maimonides also says that it was very prevalent in the time of Moses. It is to Sabianism that Job alludes (Job 31:26,27), "If I beheld the sun when it shined, or the moon walking in brightness; and my heart hath been secretly enticed, or my mouth hath kissed my hand" \emdash i.e. in token of salutation. Also in different parts of the second book of Kings, and in Zeph 1:5; Jer 19:13, the idolatrous worship of the LVALhost of heaven is mentioned. The Sabians of later times, when praying, turn towards the north pole; pray at sunrise, noon, and sunset; abstain from many kinds of vegetables; believe in the ultimate pardon of the wicked, after nine thousand years of suffering; keep three yearly fasts \emdash one in February of seven days, one in March of thirty days, and one in December of nine days; offer many burned offerings, or holocausts; adore the stars; teach that mediators live in the seven planets, whom they call lords and gods, but the true God they call Lord of lords; each planet, they teach, has his distinct region, office, and objects of guardianship; they believe that an intercourse is kept up between the planetary intelligences and the earth, and that their influence is conveyed by talismanic mystic seals, made with spells and according to astrological rules. They go on pilgrimage to Harran, in Mesopotamia, respect the temple at Mecca, and venerate the pyramids in Egypt, which they believe to be the sepulchres of Seth, Enoch, and Sabi; and they offer there a cock and black calf, and burn incense (Sale, Koran). See TSABIANS.\par The name of Sabians is often given by the Mohammedans and Eastern Christians to a sect in and about Bagdad and Bassorah, whose proper appellation is Mendaites, or "Disciples of John," sometimes improperly called "Christians of St. John," as they have in reality no pretensions to Christianity. The name of their founder is John, but it is not quite clear that he is John the Baptist, as has been supposed by their using a kind of baptism. Their sacred books are a ritual, the book of John, and the book of Adam; the latter has been published, and is extremely mystical and obscure. It sets out with the Gnostic tenet of two eternal, self-existent; independent principles. It teaches that Jesus is one of the seven planets \emdash viz. Mercury; that he was baptized in Jordan by John, but corrupted the doctrines of John, wherefore the good genius Anush delivered him up to be crucified. ThexLVALse Sabians pray at the seventh hour and at sunset; assemble at the place of worship on the first day of the week, on which day they baptize their children; they use extreme unction, decry celibacy, forbid the worship of images, permit all kinds of meat, but abstain from meat dressed by infidels; sign their children with a particular sign, and contemn all reverence for the planets. The Rev. Joseph Wolf mentions in his Journal having met with some of these Sabians, or rather Mendaites, about Bassorah; but they evidently wished to impose on him and give a favorable impression of their doctrines. They affected a great reverence for Christ, as the Messiah, and the Word of God; they professed to require the mediation of Christ and John, and to believe that Christians would be saved, and to expect the second advent, and taught that sin was washed away by rebaptizing. Their remaining tenets, such as sealing their children, abstaining from meats cooked by Mohammedans, etc., are the same as have been before quoted. See MENDAEANS.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVALh({\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SABIN, ELIJAH ROBINSON\par Sabin (Or Sabine), Elijah Robinson,\par an early American Methodist minister, was descended from an old Puritan family, and was born in Tolland, Conn., Sept. 10, 1776. Although he never went to school after he was eight years of age, he acquired a tolerable education by night study on his father's farm. He was early converted under Calvinistic influence, but soon joined the Methodists, and began to preach in Vermont in 1798. The next year he was received into what was then the New York Conference, and sent to Needham, Mass. His labors on the Landaff Circuit, in New Hampshire, which was his next appointment, were so severe as to impair his health, and he retired as supernumerary for two years, during which he married. He resumed his ministry in 1805 as presiding elder of the Vermont district, and afterwards presiding elder on the New London district, enduring many hardships and persecutions in the work. He next served on the Needham Circuit, and finally in Boston. In 1811, his health failing, he located and afterwards removed to Penobscot, where he endured the horrors of the ensuing war, being in 1814 temporarily compelled to escape to Landaff. In 1817 he visited the South, and died at Augusta, Ga., May 4, 1818. He was a man of fine figure and commanding address, and at one time was chaplain of the House of Representatives of Massachusetts. He published several small works: The Road to Happiness: \emdash Charles Observator: \emdash several occasional Sermons and Tracts: \emdash and began the collection of materials for a History of Maine. See Sprague, Annals of the Amer. Pulpit, 7, 306 sq.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SABINA\par Sabina,\par Saint and Martyr, was a pious and noble widow who had been converted to Christianity by Serapia, a virgin of Antioch who lived in her house (in what station is not known). Serapia was required to sacrifice to the gods, but refused; and when the presiding judge commanded her to offer to Christ instead, she replied, "I sacrifice to him continually, and pray to him day and night." To the inquiry, "Where is the temple of your Christ, and what sacrifices do you offer?" she responded, "I offer myself in chastity and purity, and endeavor to persuade others to the same course; for it is written, 'Ye are the temple of the living God.'" Thereupon the judge delivered her up to two Egyptians that they might violate her chastity; but they were smitten by divine power with blindness and terror, and were unable to accomplish their purpose. This result was attributed to the magical arts of Serapia, and she was subjected to various tortures, and finally beheaded. Sabina had the remains of her sainted teacher interred in her own tomb, and was soon called to suffer a similar fate. She endured joyfully for Christ, and was laid by the side of her companion. The year of their martyrdom was about A.D. 125, as both Tillemont and the Bollandists assume; the place, according to Tillemont, some town in Umbria, but according to the Bollandists, the city of Rome. Roman Catholic scholars are not agreed respecting the character of such ancient "Acts" of this saint as still exist; some, like Baronius, regarding them as "sincerissima," while others, like Tillemont (Monumenta, vol. 2), acknowledge them to be ancient, but doubt whether their antiquity reaches back to the time when these martyrs suffered, and also whether interpolations have not been added. The Bollandists. decide, "nobis non videntur fide indig LVAL na, etiamsi non careant omni naevo" (see the Bollandists, in Act. SS. MM. Secrapioe et Sabinoe ad 29 Augusti). The relics of the two confessors were transferred in A.D. 430 to a new church erected in their honor at Rome.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SABINA, POPPAEA\par Sabina, Poppaea,\par \par first the mistress and afterwards the wife of Nero. Her father was T. Ollius, who perished at the fall of his patron Sejanus, and her maternal grandfather was Poppaeus Sabinus, whose name she assumed. Poppaea had been originally married to Rufius Crispinus, by whom she had a son; but she afterwards became the mistress of Otho, a boon companion of Nero, by whose means she hoped to attract the notice of the emperor. Obtaining a divorce from Rufius, she married Otho. Her husband's lavish praise of her charms made the emperor anxious to see her. Her conduct had the desired effect. Nero removed Otho out of the way by sending him to govern Lusitania, A.D. 58. Poppaea now became the acknowledged mistress of Nero, but was anxious to be his wife. As long, however, as Agrippina, the mother of Nero, was alive, she could scarcely hope to obtain this honor. Through her influence Nero was induced to put his mother to death, in A.D. 59, and in A.D. 62 he put away Octavia, on the plea of barrenness. and married Poppaea a few days afterwards. Not feeling secure as long as Octavia was alive, she worked upon the fears and passions of her husband until she prevailed upon him to put the unhappy girl to death in the course of the same year. Poppaea was killed by a kick from her husband in a fit of passion ( A.D. 65). Her body was not burned, according to the Roman custom, but embalmed, and was deposited in the sepulchre of the Julii. She received the honor of a public funeral, and her funeral oration was pronounced by Nero himself. The only class in the empire who regretted her may have been the Jews, whose cause she had defended (Josephus, Life, \'a7 3; Ant. 20, 8, 11).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 20^LVALn06 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } jLVALz{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SABOTIERS\par \par Sabotiers,\par \par a name given to the Waldenses, from the sabots (sandals) worn by the French peasantry. The sabots of the Waldenses were, however, distinguished by a painted cross\emdash insabbatati \emdash or else by sandals tied crosswise. They are described in an epistle of Innocent III as "calciamenta desuper aperta" (Innocent, Ep. 15, 137); and other writers speak of the Waldenses as wearing sandals, after the custom of the apostles, and as walking with naked feet. Ebrard speaks of them contemptuously as assuming this name themselves: "Xabatenses a xabata potius, quam Christiani a Christo, se volunt appellari." The custom was doubtless adopted in imitation of the voluntary poverty of the apostles, and in accordance with the names "Pauperes de Lugduno" and "De Lombardia," which they assumed (Ebrard, Contr. Waldens. in Bibl. Lugd. [1572], 24).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SABTA\par Sab'ta\par (Heb. Subta', <START HEBREW>aT*b=s^<END HEBREW>\par , of unknown etymology, Sept. <START GREEK>\par Sabaqa/<END GREEK>\par v.r. <START GREEK>\par Sabata/<END GREEK>\par , 1 Chron 1:9; in Gen 10:7 the Heb. [in most MSS.] is Sabtah', <START HEBREW>hT*b=s^<END HEBREW>\par ; Sept. <START GREEK>\par Sabaqa/<END GREEK>\par ; Eng. Vers. "Sabtah"), the third named of the five sons of Cush, the son of Ham. B.C. cir. 2475. His descendants appear to have given name to a region of the Cushites (Gen 10:7; 1 Chron 1:9). See CUSH.\par In accordance with the identifications of the settlements of the Cushites in the art. ARABIA and elsewhere. Sabtah should be looked for along the southern coast of Arabia. There seem to be no traces in Arabic writers; but the statements of Pliny (6, 32, \'a7 155; 12, 32), Ptolemy (6, 7, p. 411), and Anon. Peripl. (27), respecting Sabbatha, Sabota, or Sabotale, metropolis of the Atramitae (probably the Chatramotitae), seem to point to a trace of the tribe which descended from Sabta, always supposing that this city Sabbatha was not a corruption or dialectic variation of Saba, Seba, or Sheba. See SHEBA. It is only necessary to remark here that the indications afforded by the Greek and Roman writers of Arabian geography require very cautious handling, presenting, as they do, a mass of contradictions and transparent travelers' tales respecting the unknown regions of Arabia the Happy, Arabia Thurifera, etc. Ptolemy places Sabbatha in long. 77\'b0, lat. 16\'b0 30'. It was an important city, containing no less than sixty temples (Pliny, N.H. 6, 23, 32); it was also situate in the territory of king Elisarus, or Eleazus (comp. Anon. Peripl. ap. Muller, Geog. Min. p. 278, 279), supposed by Fresnel to be identical with "Ascharides," or "Alascharissoun" in Arabic (J2LVALBourn. Asiat. Nouv. Serie, 10, 191). Winer thinks the identification of Sabta with Sabbatha, etc., to be probable; and it is accepted by Bunsen (Bibelwerk, Gen 10, and Atlas). It certainly occupies a position in which we should expect to find traces of Sabta, where are traces of Cushitic tribes in very early times, on their way, as we hold, from their earlier colonies in Ethiopia to the Euphrates. Gesenius, who sees in Cush only Ethiopia, "has no doubt that Sabta should be compared with <START GREEK>\par Saba/t, Saba/, Sabai/<END GREEK>\par (see Strabo, 16, p. 770, ed. Casaub.; Ptolemy, 4, 10), on the shore of the Arabian Gulf, situated just where Arkiko is now, in the neighborhood of which the Ptolemies hunted elephants. Among the ancient translators, Pseudo-Jonathan saw the true meaning, rendering it <START HEBREW>yadms<END HEBREW>\par , for which read <START HEBREW>yarms<END HEBREW>\par , i.e. the Sembritpoe, whom Strabo (l.c. p. 786) places in the same region. Josephus (Ant. 1, 6, 1) understands it to be the inhabitants of Astabora" (Gesenius, ed. Tregelles, s.v.). Here the etymology of Sabta is compared plausibly with <START GREEK>\par Saba/t<END GREEK>\par ; but when probability is against his being found in Ethiopia, etymology is of small value, especially when it is remembered that Sabat and its variations (Sabax, Sabai) may be related to Seba, which certainly was in Ethiopia. On the Rabbinical authorities which he quotes we place no value. It only remains to add that Michaelis (Suppl. p. 1712) removes Sabta to Ceuta, opposite Gibraltar, called in Arabic Sebtah (comp. Marasid, s.v.); and that Bochart (Phaleg, 1, 114, 115, 252 sq.), while he mentions Sabbatha, prefers to place Sabta near the western shore of the Persian Gulf, with the Saphtha of Ptolemy, the name also of an island in that gulf.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVAL({\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SABTECHA\par Sab'techa\par (Heb. Sabteka', <START HEBREW>ak*T=b=s^<END HEBREW>\par , etymology unknown; Sept. in Genesis <START GREEK>\par Sabaqaka/<END GREEK>\par v.r. <START GREEK>\par Sabakaqa/<END GREEK>\par ; in Chronicles A.V. "Sabtechah;" <START GREEK>\par Sebeqaxa/<END GREEK>\par v.r. <START GREEK>\par Sekaqa/<END GREEK>\par ), the last named of the five sons of Cush, the son of Ham. B.C. cir. 2475. His descendants seem to have given name to a people in Ethiopia (Gen 10:7; 1 Chron 1:9). See CUSH. "Their settlements would probably be near the Persian Gulf, where are those of Raamah, the next before him in the order of the Cushites. See DEDAN; See RAAMAH; See SHEBA. He has not been identified with any Arabic place or district, nor satisfactorily with any name given by classical writers. Bochart (who is followed by Bunsen, Bibelwerk, Gen 10, and Atlas) argues that he should be placed in Carmania, on the Persian shore of the gulf, comparing Sabtechah with the city of Samydace of Steph. Byz. (<START GREEK>\par Samida/kh<END GREEK>\par or <START GREEK>\par Samuka/dh<END GREEK>\par of Ptolemy, 6, 8, 7). This etymology appears to be very far-fetched. Gesenius (Thesaur. p. 936) merely says that Sabtechah is the proper name of a district of Ethiopia, and adds the reading of the Targ. Pseudo-Jonathan (<START HEBREW>yagnz<END HEBREW>\par , Zingitani)." In confirmation of this latter view the name Sabatok has been discovered on the Egyptian monuments (Rosellini, Monumenta, 2, 198).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } <LVALN{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SACAEA\par \par Sacaea,\par \par a festival observed by the ancient Persians and Babvlonians in commemoration of a victory gained over the Sacae, a people of Scythia. It lasted five days, and resembled in its mode of observance the Roman saturnalia (q.v.).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SABUREANS\par \par Sabureans,\par \par a class of doctors among the modern Jews, who weakened the authority of the Talmud by their doubts and conjectures. They were sometimes termed Opinionists. It is said that rabbi Josi was the founder of the sect about twenty-four years before the Talmud was finished. He had some celebrated successors who became heads of the academies of Sora and Pumbaditha. But as these two famous academies were shut up by order of the king of Persia, the sect of the Sabureans became extinct about seventy-four years after its establishment.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVAL{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SACCHI, ANDREA\par \par Sacchi, Andrea,\par \par an Italian painter, was born at Rome in 1598. From his father, a mediocre artist, he received his first ideas of art, and by studying the works of Albani he became one of the best artists of the Roman school. His works show great care in execution, though they have been criticized by Raphael Mengs as lacking in detail. In the Vatican are four of his paintings, which are reproduced in Mosaic in the crypt of St. Peter's. Among his best paintings are the Miracle of St. Gregory the Great, Noah and his Sons, and portraits of Albani and of the artist himself. He died in 1661. His tomb is in the church of St. John Lateran at Rome.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SACAR\par \par Sa'car\par \par (Heb. Sacar', <START HEBREW>rk*c*\par <END HEBREW>, hire, as often; Sept \par <START GREEK>Saxa/r\par <END GREEK> v.r.] \par <START GREEK>Axa/r\par <END GREEK>, and \par <START GREEK>Saxia/r\par <END GREEK> in 1 Chron 26:4), the name of two Israelites.\par \par 1. The father of Abiam, one of David's mighty men; he is called a Hararite (1 Chron 11:35), and is the same man called SHARAR (q.v.) in 2 Sam 23:33. B.C. ante 1020. See DAVID.\par \par 2. The fourth named of the eight sons of Obed-Edom (1 Chron 26:4). B.C. cir. 1012. \par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par }  LVAL {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SACCHINI, FRANCESCO\par \par Sacchini, Francesco,\par \par an Italian historian, was born in the year 1570 at Paciono, near Perugia. In 1688 he joined the Order of Jesuits, and taught in Rome. He was for seven years the secretary of Vitelleschi, general of his order. His writings were principally historical, as Historia Soc. Jesu (5 vols. fol.; the list three of these were published after his death). He also published a volume of sermons, and an Italian translation of the life of Paulin de Nole, by Rosweyde. He died at Rome Dec. 16, 1625.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } |LVALV{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SACCUS\par \par Saccus\par \par (\par <START GREEK>sakko/$\par <END GREEK>), a tight sleeveless habit worn by Greek patriarchs and metropolitans.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SACCOPHORI\par \par Saccophori\par \par (sack-carriers), a name of a small party of professing penitents in the 4 th century, who went about always dressed in the coarse apparel which their name implies. They appear to have been a subdivision of the Encratites-those, namely, who thought fit to make an outward profession of their rule. St. Basil puts together the Encratites, Saccophori, and Apotactics as an offshoot of the Marcionites (Basil, Can. Epist. 2, can. 47). Theodosius made a decree, which was renewed by Honorius, that some of the Manichueans, who went by the name of Encratites, Saccophori, or Hydroparastatse, should be punished with death (Cod. Theod. lib. 16, tit. 5, "De Haeret." leg. 9).\par \par Both the Marcionites and the Manichaeans held the doctrine of Two Principles; and it is no wonder that the Encratites are referred now to one, now to the other of these sects. But their true origin appears to be from the former. St. Basil's Canon is one relating to the baptism of these sects. See ENCRATITES.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } 8LVAL& 2L{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SACELLUM\par \par Sacellum,\par \par a sacred enclosure among the ancient Romans, which was dedicated to a god, and containing an altar and a statue of the deity.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SACELLIUS\par \par Sacellius\par \par (Gr. \par <START GREEK>sakella/rio$\par <END GREEK>), a lay officer of the early Church, acting in the capacity of treasurer, as \par <START GREEK>me/ga$ sakella/rio$\par <END GREEK>, treasurer of the cloisters. See Coleman, Christian Antiquities, p. 129.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SACELLANUS, THE GRAND\par \par Sacellanus, The Grand,\par \par an officer in the Greek Church, whose title denotes "headmaster of the chapel." He exercises inspection over monasteries and nunneries, presents all candidates for ordination to the patriarch or his deputy, and assists the patriarch in th'e performance of several of the ceremonies of the Church, and in the administration of his judicial functions.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVAL8{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SACERDOS\par \par Sacerdos\par \par (priest), a name by which bishops and presbyters are frequently designated in early writings, bishops being occasionally called summi sacerdotes. From the deacons performing only the subordinate ministerial duties, they were early called sacerdotes secundi vel tertii ordinis. See Coleman, Chris. Antiq. p. 111.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SACER, GOTTFRIED WILHELM\par \par Sacer, Gottfried Wilhelm,\par \par a German hymnist, was born at Naumberg July 11, 1635, and died Sept. 8, 1699. He was an excellent lawyer, and in his official duties distinguished himself by a strict conscientiousness and the most unbounded benevolence. He is the author of a number of very fine hymns; the greater part he composed while a student at the University of Greifswalde. When these hymns were collected and published in 1714, they immediately procured him the reputation of a distinguished poet. Two of them were also translated into English by Miss E. Cox: Gott fdhrt auf gen' Himmel (Hymns from the German, p. 62), "Lo! God to heaven ascendeth," and So hab' ich obgesieget (p. 86), "My race is now completed." See Koch, Geschichte des deutschen Kirchenliedes, 3, 398 sq.; Gul. Saceri Memoria, auctore Joanne Arnold Ballenstedt (Helmst. 1745).\par \par B. P. \par \par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVAL{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SACERDOTAL CITIES\par \par Sacerdotal Cities,\par \par the thirteen cities set apart by Joshua for the family of Aaron, which lay in the tribes of Judah, Simeon, and Benjamin (Josh 21:4), and in the vicinity of the holy city. Their names were Hebron (a free city), Libnah, Jattir, Eshtemoa, Holon, Debir, Ain, Juttah, Beth-shemesh, Gibeon, Geba, Anathoth, and Almon; the last four being in the tribe of Benjamin (ver. 10 sq.). After the exile, too, priests dwelt in these cities (Neh 7:73), though many were permanestly settled in Jerusalem itself (11:10 sq.). See CITY; See LEVI; See PRIEST.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SACERDOTAL CONSECRATION\par Sacerdotal Consecration Among The Israelites.\par Priests and high priests were consecrated to their offices with a variety of ceremonies, which are described at great length in the sacred books (Ex 29:1-37; Lev 8:1-30; Ex 40:12-15; comp. Bahr, Symbolik, 2, 166 sq.). The service consisted chiefly of two parts (comp. Ex 29:29).\par 1. The proper consecration consisted of washing the whole body, investment, and anointing with the sacred oil. See UNGUENT. The latter, indeed, in Ex 29:7; Lev 8:12, is mentioned only of the high priests; but that the common priests were also anointed is clear from Ex 40:15 (comp. 28:41); and the peculiarity of the anointing of the high priest seems to have been simply that the ointment was poured upon his head (29:7; Lev 8:10), while the common priests were, perhaps, simply touched with the ointment on the hands, or, as the rabbins say, on the brow.\par 2. A sacrifice then followed. Three beasts were led to the altar, and the hands of the new made priest were laid upon them. First a young bull was presented as a sin offering, and essentially treated as a sin offering of the first class. See SIN-OFFIERING. A ram was slain as a burned offering, according to the usual ceremonial; and finally the Ram of Consecration. Blood from this ram was placed on the ear laps, on the right thumb, and on the great toe of the right foot, and was sprinkled about the altar. The parts of the body touched with blood point out the members chiefly used in sacerdotal service. (On the foot, comp. Ex 28:35. See Bahr, op. cit. p. 425. Comp. the five places touched by the Catholics in extreme unction. Their priests at consecration have only the hands anointed.) Now the bodies and the clothing of the candidates were again sprinkled, this time with a mixture of the blood of LVALthe sacrifice and oil. The final ceremony was this: those parts of the ram of consecration which in the case of a thank-offering were raised and waved were placed, with some unleavened bread, upon the hands of the persons consecrated, and waved, and finally burned upon the altar, the "breast of the wave-offering" and the "shoulder of the heave-offering" alone excepted. On the symbolic meaning of this ceremony, See CONSECRATION OFFERING.\par The ceremony of consecration, perhaps only the sacrifices of it, was to be repeated seven days (Ex 29:35), and the priests were forbidden during this time to leave the sanctuary. It is not very probable that this minute ceremonial was carried out at the ordination of all Jewish priests. According to the rabbins, it was only necessary at the first institution of the priesthood, and afterwards each common priest, on entering upon his office, was only required to present the meat-offering (Lev 6:12,14 sq.). See CONSECRATION; See PRIEST.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SACERDOTAL ORDER\par Sacerdotal Order\par (designated in general by the Hebrew word priests, kohanim', <START HEBREW><yn!h&K)<END HEBREW>\par , for the etymology, see various views in Gesenius, Thesaur. 2, 661 sq.). In the patriarchal age the head of a family was its priest (Gen 35:1 sq. See JETHRO; See MELCHIZEDEK.); but when the children of Israel became a nation, a special tribe of priests was set apart by law for them. This arrangement was so far similar to that of the Egyptians that they too had a separate caste or body of priests, who indeed were their first and highest caste (Herod. 2, 164; Diod. Sic. 1, 73. On the Indian Brahmins, see Meiner, Gesch. d. Religion, 2, 541 sq.; yet comp. Bahr, Symbolik, 2, 32 sq.). By its hereditary nature, the priesthood acquired more firmness and security; the ritual and ceremonial law was more easily preserved and obeyed; and the higher culture which such a caste always secures obtained a more definite and fixed center.\par These priests alone" drew near to God" (Num 16:5; Ex 19:22; Ezek 42:13; comp. Num 18:3), and hence must alone attend to all the services of the central sanctuary, the penalty of death being denounced against all others who assumed such duties (Num 3:6-10,38; 16:40). These priests, who exercised their office, after the division of the kingdom, in Judah alone (1 Kings 13:33; 2 Chron 11:13 sq.), were confined to the family of Aaron (Ex 28:1), who were Kohathites (comp. Num 4:2). Hence they are called the children of Aaron (Lev 3:5,13; comp. 1:5; 2:2); although not all the descendants of Aaron who were legally qualified actually served as priests. Thus Benaiah, a priest's son (1 Chron 27:5), held military office under David (2 Sam 8:18; 20:23; 1 Kings 2:35). They were required to be without physical defect, as became men who must draw near toLVAL God, and mediate between him and his people (Lev 21:17 sq.; comp. Mishna, Bechoroth, c. 7; Josephus, War, 5, 5, 7; see Tholuck, Zwei Beil. z. Br. a. d. Hebr. p. 81 sq. On the examination for priesthood, see Mishna, Middoth, 5, 4). They must also be of blameless reputation (Josephus, Ant. 3, 12, 2; Philo, Opp. 2, 225; see Richter, Physiogn. Sacerd. [Jena, 1715] 2, 4; Kiesling, De Legib. Mos. circa Sacerdot. Vitio Corporis Laborantes [Lips. 1755]), which, indeed, was demanded among other nations (Potter, Greek Antiq. 1, 292 sq.; Adam, Rom. Antiq. 1, 529). On the vestals especially, see Aul. Gell. 1, 12. The requirements of the canon law as to physical defects in the clergy may be compared.\par The law did not fix any definite year of the priest's age in which he should enter upon his office; yet the Gemarists assert that none was ever admitted before his twentieth year. Indeed, this age was required of the Levites (q.v.) before serving. But since, at a later day, even the high priest might be but a youth (Josephus, Ant. 15, 3, 3), it may be that with priests of lower grade no great strictness was ever exercised in this respect. Indeed the Mishna (Yoma, 1, 7; comp. Tamid, 1, 1) speaks of youths whose beard was just beginning to grow (if the gloss be right) as already entering the sanctuary in the priestly office. At a later day every one was required to prove his genealogy (comp. Mishna, Middoth, 5, 4; Kiddush. 4, 4 sq.), which led the priests to set great value on their family records (comp. Ezra 2:62; Neh 7:64; Josephus, Apion, 1, 7), and the Gemara refers to a special course of instruction for those entering on this office (Kethuboth, cvi, 1). The formal consecration to the priesthood consisted in sacrifices, with symbolic ceremonies, purifications, and investment (Ex 29; Lev 8:1). See SACERDOTAL CONSECRATION.\par The Israelitish priests, during active service (and, according to Jewish tradition, during their stay in the Temple; but see Josephus, War, 5, 5, 7; according to the Mishna, Tamid, 1, 1, LVALthey were merely prohibited from sleeping in their clothes; these were kept in the Temple under a special officer [Mishna, Shekal. 5, 1]), wore clothing of white linen (<START HEBREW>d!B^<END HEBREW>\par , bad), as did the Egyptian priests (Herod. 2, 37), whose white linen garments, the simple expression of purity, were known through the ancient world (see Spencer, Leg. Rit. 3, 5; Celsius, Hierobot. 2, 290). Bahr supposes the Israelitish priestly garments to have been copied from the Egyptian (Symbol. 2, 89 sq.), but on insufficient grounds (comp. Hengstenberg, Mos. p. 149 sq.). These garments of the Jewish priests consisted of the following distinct parts, which, however, are not accurately described (Ex 28:40,42; 39:27 sq.; Lev 6:3; 8:13):\par (1.) <START HEBREW><ys!n*k=m!<END HEBREW>\par , miknasim (Sept. <START GREEK>\par periskelh=<END GREEK>\par , A.V. "linen breeches"), which were simply drawers, a covering for the pudenda, extending from the hips to the thighs (so described by Josephus, Ant. 3, 7, 1; but comp. Philo, Opp. 2, 225).\par (2.) <START HEBREW>tn#tK=<END HEBREW>\par , kethoneth (A.V. "coat"), a woven tunic for the body. It is described by Josephus (Ant. 3, 7, 1) as reaching to the feet and fitting the body, with sleeves tied fast to the arms, and girded to the breast a little above the elbows.\par (3.) <START HEBREW>fn@b=a^<END HEBREW>\par , abnet, the "girdle" used to bind the tunic. It passed round the body several times, beginning at the breast, and was then tied, and hung loosely down to the ankles, save when the priest was serving, when, for convenience, it was thrown over the shoulders. It was broad, loosely woven, and embroidered (Josephus, Ant. 3, 7, 2).\par (4.) <START HEBREW>hu*B*g=m!<END HEBREW>\par , migbaah (A.V. "bonnet, "Ex 28:40), properly a cap or turban, not made conical, but covering rather more than half the head, and so made as to resemble a crown. It was of heavy linen, in many folds, and sewed together, and had a cover of fine linen, which reached doLVALwn to the forehead. It was fitted closely to the head (Josephus, Ant. 3, 7, 3). But Bihr has made some well grounded objections to this description of Josephus (Symbol. 2, 64 sq.), and the migbadh may, perhaps, have been a real cap, possibly in the form of a flower cup (comp. especially the extracts from Schilte Haggibbor, in Hebrew and German, in Ugolini Thesaur. vol. 13, and Braun, De Vestitu Sacerdot. [Amst. 1701]). There is no sufficient reason for supposing the forms of these articles of clothing to have been imitated from Egyptian models. The Israelitish priests seem not to have worn shoes: no mention, at least, is made of them; and the belief prevailed that on a holy place one should tread only with bare feet (Ex 3:5; Josh 5:15). See SHOE. The Egyptian priests performed their service barefoot (Sil. Ital. 3, 28; for other similar examples, see Carpzov, Appar. p. 790 sq.; Walch, De Vet. Relig. <START GREEK>\par a)nupodhsi/a|<END GREEK>\par [Jena, 1756], p. 12 sq.; Baldwin, De Calceo Antiq. c. 23), though Herodotus ascribes to them sandals of papyrus (2, 37). The Rabbins assure us expressly that the priests wore no shoes (Bartenora, Ad Cod. Shekal. 5, 1 Maimonides, Chele Hammikd. 5, 14; comp. Theodoret, Ad Exodus 3, qu. 7; Mishna, Berachoth, 9, 5), and refer in part to this cause the frequency of diseases of the bowels among the priests, which rendered it necessary to keep a special physician at the Temple skilled in those diseases (comp. Braun, Vestit. Sacerd. 1, 3, 33 sq.; Kall, De Morbis Sacerdot. V.T. ex Ministerii eor. Condif. Oriundis [Hafn. 1745]).\par The priests appear to have been divided by David into twenty-four classes for the daily service (1 Chron 24:3 sq.; comp. 2 Chron 8:14; 35:4 sq.; Josephus, Ant. 7, 14, 7), each of which had its president or ruler (2 Chron 36:14; Ezra 10:5; Neh 12:7: he is called <START GREEK>\par a)rxiereu/$<END GREEK>\par by Josephus, Ant. 20, 7, 8; Life, 5, 38, 39; and in the New Test., Matt 2:4; 16:21; Luke 22:52), and performed the service for one wLVALeek, from Sabbath to Sabbath (2 Kings 11:9; 2 Chron 23:4; comp. Luke 1:5; Josephus, Apion, 2, 7 sq.); dividing itself further into six sections, one for each day of the week, the whole number acting on the Sabbath. These twenty-four classes still existed in the period after the exile (Josephus, Life, p. 1; Apion, 2, 7; comp. 1 Macc 1:2,1), and the Talmud asserts (Lightfoot, Hor. Reb. p. 708 sq.) that the four priestly families which returned with Ezra (Ezra 2:36 sq.) were immediately divided into twenty-four parts by the prophets (comp. Sonntag, De Sacerd. V.T. Ephem. [Altorf, 1691]; Maius, De Ephem. Sacerd. in his Exercit. 1, 20). Herzfeld, however. considers the account of the original division into classes as a fable of the chronicler, yet without reason (Gesch. des Volkes Israel, 1, 392 sq.). The several duties, as they returned in order, were distributed by lot (Luke 1:9; Mishna, Yoma, 2, 3 sq.; and Tanid; see Lightfoot, Hor. Heb. p. 714 sq.), and there was a special officer at the Temple to preside over this distribution (Mishna, Shekal. 5, 1). The office of priest, in distinction from that of Levite, consisted in "coming nigh" to the vessels of the sanctuary and to the altar (Num 18:3); and included the following special duties: (1.) In the Temple itself, the kindling of the incense (q.v.) morning and evening (Luke 1:10); the cleansing of the lamps in the "golden candlestick" and filling them with oil; the weekly renewal of the shew bread. (2.) In the court of the Temple, the feeding of the continual fire on the altar of burned offering (Lev 6:5), and daily removal of the ashes from it (Yoma, 2, 8, 3, 1; Tamid, 1, 2, 4); all the exclusively priestly services in sacrificing, sprinkling the blood (Lev 1:5,11; 3:2,13; 4:25; 2 Chron 30:17, etc.); waving the wave pieces (Lev 14:24; 23:11,20); presenting the sacrifices and gifts upon the altar, and burning those which were to be burned (2:2,8,16; 3:11,16; 4:26, See SACRIFICE ); then the sacred ceremonies at the cleansing of the Nazarite, on the finalLVAL release from his vow (Num 6), and at the ordeal of a woman suspected of adultery (ver. 12 sq.), and the blowing of the metal trumpets at set times (Num 10:8 sq.; 2 Chron 5:12; 7:6; 29:26; Neh 12:41; Mishna, Succa, 5, 5; Arach, 2, 3). To these were added the examination of the unclean, especially of lepers and their cleansing (Lev 13:14; comp. Deut 24:8; Matt 8:4; Luke 17:14, See PURIFICATION. ), the estimation of vows (Lev 27), and the nightly watch of the inner sanctuary (Mishna, Mliddoth, 1, 1). How these were related to the priests who kept the threshold (2 Kings 12:9; 25:8; Jer 52:23) is uncertain. See THRESHOLD. The overseer of the regular watch of the priests is mentioned (Middoth, 1, 2); perhaps the same with the captain of the Temple, <START GREEK>\par strathgo\\$ tou= i(erou=<END GREEK>\par (Acts 4:1; 5:24; comp. Deyling, Observ. 3, 302 sq.). But who, then, are the captains of the Temple, <START GREEK>\par strathgoi/<END GREEK>\par , in the plural (Luke 22:52)? Perhaps under officers of the Levitical Temple watch (comp. Mishna, Shekal. 5, 1, 2). See TEMPLE.\par The priests were also required to instruct the people in the law, and in certain cases to give judicial answers (Deut 17:8 sq.; 19:17; 21:5; comp. 2 Chron 17:8. sq.). King Jehoshaphat even established a high tribunal, consisting of priests and Levites, in Jerusalem (2 Chron 19:8; comp. Josephus, Apion, 2, 21; Diod. Sic. Ecl. 40, 1). On the services of priests in armies, See WAR.\par The priests were required to perform all their offices in a state of ceremonial purity (Josephus, War, 5, 5, 6), which led to their oft repeated washings; especially before each performance of official duty (Ex 30:19 sq.; Tamid, 1, 2, 4; 2, 1), for which purpose vessels of water for bathing were kept in the court of the sanctuary. (On the duties of priests when rendered unclean, see the Mishna, Middoth, 2, 5.) They were not permitted, while engaged in official service, to take wine or any other intoxicating drink (Lev 10:9 sq.; Ezek 44:21; Josephus,LVAL Ant. 3, 12, 5; War, 5, 5, 7). According to Rabbinical regulations, those who had the daily ministration must entirely abstain, and the rest of the weekly division might drink wine only at night, because during the day they were liable to be called on for aid (Mishna, Taanith, 2, 7; comp. Josephus, Apion, 1, 22, p. 457 ed. Haverc.). All extravagant demonstrations of sorrow, as rending the clothes, wounding the body, shaving the head, etc., were forbidden them (Lev 10:6 sq.; 21:5, See MOURNING ), and they were to avoid with care the touch of a corpse (Lev 21:1 sq.; Ezek 44:25 sq.; Bahr, Symbol. 2, 182 sq.). With these restrictions may be compared those enjoined on the flamen dialis among the Romans (Aul. Gell. 10, 15). They were required in marrying, too, to have regard to priestly dignity; though not compelled to celibacy, as the Egyptian priests (Diod. Sic. 1, 80), they could only marry virgins or widows of character (never divorced women. Mishna, Sota, 8, 3), and of Israelitish descent (Lev 21:7; Ezek 44:22; comp. Ezra 10:18), though no limit was enjoined as to the particular tribe; and in a later age even the Israelitish descent needed not to be direct (Mishna, Biccur. 1, 8). Yet intermarriage with the families of priests was especially sought (Luke 1:5; comp. Josephus, Apion, 1, 7; Muinch, De Matrim. Sacerd. V. T. c. Filiab. Sacerd. [Nuremb. 1747]). The law even extended its special care to the dignity and honor of the daughters of the priests (Lev 21:9; comp. 22:12; Mishna, Terumoth, 7, 2).\par It is not difficult to understand how the priests enjoyed the peculiar reverence of the people (comp. Jer 18:18; Ecclus 7:31 sq.; Josephus, Apion, 2, 21), although their want of piety, and even their immorality, often called for severe rebukes from the prophets (Jer 5:31; 6:13; 23:11; Lam 4:13; Ezek 22:26; Hos 6:9; Mic 3:11; Zeph 3:4; Mal 2:1). A number of cities (thirteen) were set apart for the residences of the priests, as also for the Levites (Josh 21:4,10 sq.), which lay near together in the vicinityLVAL of the sanctuary, in the tribes of Judah, Simeon, and Benjamin, See SACERDOTAL CITIES, and between which and Jerusalem they made their journeys on official duty (comp. Luke 10:31. (On the station or reserve body of priests in Jericho, see Lightfoot, flor. Heb. p. 89, 709.) In the Holy City, the priests inhabited chambers in the neighborhood of the Temple (Neh 11:10 sq.).\par The priesthood was supported (comp. Num 18; Josephus, Ant. 4, 4, 4) by the assigned portions of the sacrifices (Lev 2:3,10; 5:13; 6:9,13; 7:6,9,14,32,34; 10:12 sq.; Num 6:20; Deut 18:3), as in Egypt (see Herod. 2, 37; and See SACRIFICE; comp. also Schol. ad Aristoph. Plut. 1186). This sacred portion was distributed also to those of priestly descent who were infirm, or for other reasons not called into service (Lev 21:22; Josephus, War, 5, 5, 7; see Hottinger, Apolog. pro Benigna Lege, Lev 22 [Frankf. 1738]; Cremer, in the Miscell. Groning. 2, 294 sq.; Deyling, Observ. 5, 70 sq.). First-fruits, heave offerings (Num 31:29), tithes (q.v.), the shew bread, when removed (Lev 24:9; Matt 12:4; comp. Succa, 5, 8), the fines for Levitical transgressions (Num 5:6 sq.), the redemption price of the first-born (18:15 sq.), and the subjects of vows, or the price of their redemption (Lev 27; Num 18:14; see in general Philo, De Proemiis Sacerd. in vol. 2 of Mangey's Ausg. p. 232 sq.), were also perquisites; some of which were only to be enjoyed by the priests themselves, and only then in the vicinity of the sanctuary, as the pieces of the trespass-offering (Lev 6:19 sq.) and the shew bread (24:9); others only within the Holy City; while the tithes, heave offerings, etc., were eaten in the sacerdotal cities, and by the entire families of the priests.\par In addition to their receipts, the priests were free from taxes and from military service; and the freedom from taxation was granted them even in the period after the exile, and by the foreign rulers of Palestine (Ezra 7:24; Josephus, Ant. 12, 3, 3). In the last period of the Jewish state the rLVALapacity of the high priests reduced the common priests even to want (Josephus, Ant. 20, 9, 2; comp. 8, 8). As the priests and Levites formed one thirteenth of the whole population, the support of this class was no small burden on the productive industry of the nation; yet the constant increase of the Levitical families caused such division of the revenues that the income of a Levite could never have been very great. In relation to this subject, it should be borne in mind,\par (1)\tab that the tithes and first-fruits, on a soil so fruitful, and with property secured by law, could never be very burdensome;\par (2)\tab that the other gifts, pieces from the sacrifices, vows, etc., depended in great part on the free choice of worshippers;\par (3)\tab that, apart from the priests and a few officers of government, the whole people were producers, and, during the early period at least, the body of consumers was not increased by a standing army or a learned class;\par (4)\tab that the increase in numbers of the Levites themselves did not increase the tithes, which were a fixed percentage of the produce. The true view is that one thirteenth of all the land rightfully belonged to the tribe of Levi; and, as this share was abandoned to the other tribes, their revenues were not payments for their sacerdotal services, but interest or rent for their land.\par Thus, until the destruction of the Temple at Jerusalem by the Romans, the priestly order continued as a hereditary and honored body (contrasted with the laity in the Talmud, Terum. 5, 4), directing and expressing the religious views of the people by symbolic usages, and when their relations to Jehovah were disturbed by sin, restoring them by expiatory sacrifices. It was a kind of nobility (Josephus, Life, sec. 1). It seems to have been in correspondence with their natural position; in the nation that at an early period the priests had an active share in the government as political counsellors (Num 27:2,19; 31:12 sq., 26; 32:2; Deut 27:9; Josh 17:4). Under tLVALhe kings, they sometimes mediated between the prince and the people (2 Sam 19:11), or were prized as counselors at court (1 Kings 1:7 sq., 39; 4:4; 2 Sam 8:17); but later, when the corruption of the people and the State became obvious, they allied themselves with kings and princes for the suppression of the bold speaking of the prophets (Jer 20:1 sq., 26:7 sq.), for their love of form and ritual would naturally endanger the spirit of faith within them, and place them in opposition to the prophets. See SEER.\par The rule of the sacerdotal caste in Palestine does not seem to have begun with the settlement of the Israelites there. In the time of the Judges there were family priests appointed by the head of the household (Judg 17:5 sq.; 18:3,27,30). Those who were not Levites, or at least not priests, offered on altars which they had themselves built (Judg 6:26; 13:19; 1 Sam 7:9; 16:5; but Judg 6:18 does not belong here; see Rosenm\'fcller, ad loc.; so in 1 Sam 6:14, as in 2 Sam 6:17, though priests are not expressly named); and in Shiloh, near the sanctuary, where a family of priests performed service, the people visited high-places and altars long before consecrated. See SACRIFICE. Even under David, it would seem that the Levitical priests were not exclusively intrusted with the sanctuary, for David's sons were priests (2 Sam 8:18). It is true that the word <START HEBREW><yn!h!K)<END HEBREW>\par , kohinim, is here often rendered privy-councillors, or, as in the A.V., "princes;" and so in other places where the priests are named with the people of the court, but without philological grounds (Gesenius, Thesaur. 2, 663 sq.). An exclusive priesthood, as a distinct caste, was confirmed by the building of the Temple, and their influence may have been increased by being concentrated within the little kingdom of Judah. According to 2 Chron 11:13 (comp. 1 Kings 12:31; 13:33) the priests and Levites left the kingdom of Israel under its first king, and gathered in the kingdom of Judah (but comp. 2 Kings 17:27 sq LVAL .).\par See, in general, Philo, in the first book, De Monarchia. p. 225 sq.; Saubert, De Sacerdot. Hebr. in his Op. Posth. p. 283 sq., and De Sacrif. Vet. p. 637 sq.; also in Ugolini Thesaur. vol. 12; Krumbholz, Sacerdot. Hebr. and Ugolini Sacerdot. Hebr. in Thesaur. vol. 13; Carpzov, Appar. p. 89 sq.; Reland, Ant. Sac. 2, 4 sq. See PRIEST.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVAL{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SACHEVERELL, HENRY\par Sacheverell, Henry, D.D.,\par a celebrated English divine, son of Joshua, minister of St. Peter's Church, Marlborough, was born about 1672. He was educated at Magdalen College, of which he became a fellow, and appears to have been celebrated and successful as a college tutor. He took his degree of M.A. in 1696, of B.D. in 1707, and of D.D. in 1708. The first living he held was at Cannock, in Staffordshire, but in 1705 he was appointed preacher of St. Savior's, Southwark. It was while in this situation that he delivered his two famous sermons \emdash the first at the assizes at Derby, Aug. 15, 1709; the other before the lord mayor at St. Paul's, Nov. 5, in the same year. In both sermons he vehemently attacked Low-Churchmen and Dissenters, and asserted that the Church was in imminent danger. In one he was supposed to allude, under the name of Volpone, to lord Godolphin. He was impeached by the House of Commons, and tried before the Lords, found guilty, and suspended for three years, his sermons to be burned by the public hangman. On the expiration of his sentence (1713), the queen presented him to the living of St. Andrew's, Holborn. He died June 5, 1724. He left a number of sermons, principally remarkable because of their connection with his trial. Some excellent Latin poems by him are in the Musoe Anglicanoe, vols. 2, 3. See Secret Memoirs of Sacheverell (Lond. 1710); History of Dr. Sacheverell (ibid. 1711).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SACHS, HANS\par Sachs, Hans,\par an eminent people's poet of Germany, was born at Nuremberg, Nov. 5, 1494. In a Latin school, from 1501 to 1509, he learned the elements of the sciences of the day. Though apprenticed to the trade of a shoemaker in his fifteenth year, and hindered from university training, the beginnings of general knowledge which he obtained in youth were fruitfully utilized in his after life. As a school boy he was trained to take part in the choral service of the Church; and he enjoyed also the special instruction of the Meistersinger Lienhard Nonnenbeck. Thus he joined to his profession of cobbler that of a Meistersinger. In 1511 he started upon a wandering tour, and in the course of five years became acquainted with most of the cities and eminent persons of Germany. In 1519 he returned to Nuremberg, married, and plied his two trades of cobbler and poet to the end of his life. He died Jan. 20, 1576, at the age of eighty-one.\par The career of Sachs falls in the most prosperous period of Nuremberg's history, and covers the whole epoch of the Reformation. Among his townsmen were Durer, Vischer, Ebner, Spengler, and Osiander. When Luther began to preach, he warmly welcomed the new epoch, and called the reformer the "Wittenberg nightingale." Throughout his fruitful life he labored, directly or indirectly, to promote the new doctrines, and to promote honor and purity among the people. His poetic productiveness began with his return to Nuremberg, in his twenty-fourth year. Thenceforth his fertility is almost marvelous, and comparable only to that of the Spanish poet Lope de Vega. His works embraced thirty-four folio volumes. In 1567 he estimated the number of his poems, short and long, at 6048, and nearly 600 were subsequently added. They were written upon all possible subjects \emdash LVAL history, sacred and profane; fable, classic and Gothic; civic life and domestic; animals, birds, and fishes; and in every style \emdash tragedy, comedy, farce, epic, didactic, lyric, elegiac, and descriptive. The greater part of these poems were designed not for the press, but to be used by players in MS., and to be sung on special occasions. The first complete collection of his approved poems appeared at Augsburg, in 3 vols. fol., from 1558 to 1561. A larger edition, at the same place, in 5 vols. fol., in 1570-79. A selection of his better pieces appeared at Nuremberg in 1781, also in 3 vols.; ibid. in 1816-24; still another, in 2 vols., in 1856; still another in the 4 th, 5 th, and 6 th vols. of the Deutsche Dichter des 16. Jahrhunderts, by Goedeke and Tittmann (Leips. 1870-74). During the dry dogmatic period of the 17 th century, Sachs was quite neglected, but Wieland and Goethe brought him again into good repute. A monument was erected to him at Nuremberg in 1874. See Ranisch, Lebensbeschreibunsg Hans Sachsens (Altenburg, 1765); Hoffmann, Hans Sachs (Nuremberg, 1847); Herzog, Real-Encykl. 20, 636, 653.\par J. P. L. \par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVAL{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SACHS, MARCUS\par Sachs, Marcus,\par professor of Hebrew and exegetical theology, was born of Jewish parentage at Inovratzlav, in the duchy of Posen, June 13, 1812. He received his early education at Berlin, in the house of an uncle, who sent him to the gymnasium, where Homer became his delight. Having passed his examination, he entered the university, and gave himself to the study of French literature. Voltaire became his idol. The career of a rabbi was closed to him; and as for a position in any public office, the government of Prussia in those days iwas not liberal to men of his opinions. As trade also was not to his mind, he determined in 1842 to go to England. After a short sojourn in London he came to Edinburgh, and here it was that, through the instrumentality of the late Dr. John Brown, this Jewish freethlinker was brought to Christ. When he had made his public profession, he betook himself to the study for the ministry, and attended the lectures of Dr. Chalmers. Having obtained license as a preacher, he was appointed tutor in Hebrew to the Free Church Divinity Hall in Aberdeen. After having filled the office of tutor for some years, he was raised to the status and obtained the title of professor of Hebrew and exegetical theology. For nearly thirty years he held this honorable position, until he was called home, Sept. 29, 1869. See Marcus Sachs: In Memoriam (Aberdeen, 1872); Delitzsch, Saat auf Hoffnung (1875), 12, 41 sq.\par B. P. \par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SACHS, MICHAEL\par Sachs, Michael,\par a German rabbi, was born at Great-Glogau, Sept. 3, 1808. Owing to his distinguished talents both as a Biblical scholar and a preacher, he was invited to become rabbi preacher of the new temple at Prague in 1836, which office he occupied till 1844, when he was appointed rabbinate assessor to the Jewish community at Berlin, where he remained till his death, Jan. 31, 1864. He published a German translation of the Psalms, with annotations (Berlin, 1835): \emdash Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Isaiah, Joel, Amos, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Malachi, the Psalms, the Song of' Songs, and Lamentations, as well as part of Jeremiah, translated from the Hebrew into German, embodied in the Twenty-four Books of Holy Scripture according to the Massoretic Text, edited by Zunz, Arnheim, Furst, and Sachs (ibid. 1838): \emdash Die religiose Poesie der Juden in Spanien (ibid. 1845): \emdash Stimmen vom Jordan und Euphrat (ibid. 1853): \emdash Beitrage zur Sprach- und Alterthumsforschung (ibid. 1852-54, 2 vols.): \emdash Festival Prayers of the Israelites, the Hebrew text with a German translation and notes (ibid. 1856-57, 9 vols.): \emdash Daily Prayer-book, the Hebrew text with a German translation (ibid. 1858): \emdash and finally, Sermons (ibid. 1867-69, 2 vols., ed. by Dr. D. Rosin), besides a number of valuable essays, published in the Kerem-Chemed (ibid. 1856, new ser. vol. 9). See Furst, Bibl. Jud. 3, 190 sq.; Kitto, Cyclop. s.v.; Geiger, Judische Zeitschrift, 1863, p. 263 sq.; Frankel, Monatsschrift, 1864, p. 115 sq.; 1866, p. 301 sq.; Gratz, Geschichte der Juden, 11, 571 sq.; Cassel, Leitfaden derjudischen Literatur, p. 114 sq.; Jewish Messenger (N.Y.), Aug. 27, 1875.\par B. P. \par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'0LVAL@a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } PLVAL`{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SACHSE, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH HEINRICH\par \par Sachse, Christian Friedrich Heinrich, D.D.,\par \par a German Protestant theologian, was born July 2, 1785, at Eisenberg, in Saxe-Altenburg. Having finished his studies at Jena, he was in 1812 appointed deacon in Meuselwitz, near Altenburg. In 1823 he was made court preacher at Altenburg, in 1831 member of consistory, and in 1841 his alma mater honored him with the theological doctorate. In February, 1860, he was obliged, through bodily infirmities, to retire from his important position, and on October 9 he was called to his home. Sachse wrote several very fine hymns, two of which are also translated into English \emdash Wohlauf! wohlan! zum letzten Gang, sung at his own funeral (in Hymns from the Land of Luther [p. 108], "Come forth! come on with solemn song!"), and Lebwohl, die Erde wartet dein (ibid. p. 154, "Beloved and honored, fare thee well!"). See Koch, Gesch. des deutschen Kirchenliedes, 7, 22, 76; Knapp, Evangel. Liederschatz, p. 1342, s.v.\par \par \par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SACK, AUGUST FRIEDRICH WILHELM\par Sack, August Friedrich Wilhelm,\par one of the most eminent German Reformed preachers of the reign of Frederick II of Prussia, was born at Harzgerode, Feb. 4, 1703. In 1722-24 he studied at Frankfort-on-the-Oder. The next two years he passed as tutor in the family of a French preacher at Stettin. Then he studied in Holland. Here he became acquainted with the chief theologians of Arminianism, from which his own views took a permanent coloring. From 1728 to 1731 he was teacher to a young prince in the neighborhood of Magdeburg. In 1731 he began to preach in Magdeburg, and rapidly rose in esteem and in office. In the last year of the old king Frederick William I (1740) he was called to Berlin, where he entered upon his ministry of forty years. It was a noble and fruitful career. He stood independent between the two prevalent partiesthe slavishly orthodox and the rationalists \emdash holding to the good in both parties, and esteemed by the best in both. At the outbreak of the Seven Years' War he accompanied the royal family to Magdeburg, and there, for three years, was charged with the education of the crown prince. At the close of the war, he resumed his labors as cathedral preacher in Berlin. He preached his last sermon in 1780. He died April 3, 1786. The chief theological work of Sack is Der vertheidigte Glaube der Christen (issued first in 1751, again in 1773), a popular statement and defense of Christian doctrine, which is worthy of attention even today. In this work the author ably and safely avoids the two fatal extremes of dynamic determinism as to the action of grace and of the self-regeneration of the Socinians. "The objective conditions of salvation are miraculously prepared in redemption; the subjective appropriation of these conditions is left to human frepLVALedom. God cannot convert man without man; man cannot convert himself without God." Of Sack's sermons several volumes appeared (1735 to 1764). They passed through many editions. One volume of them was translated into French by Frederick II's queen, Elizabeth: Six Sermons de M. Sack (1775). In character Sack was worthy of his high position. He quailed not before tyrants, and was believing in an age of negation and infidelity. He stood by the side of Spalding, Jerusalem, and Zollikofer, a pillar of the Church, when obscurantist and neologist were laboring to bury it in ruins. His was noble blood; his son and his son's son have followed worthily in his footsteps. See Sack, Lebensbeschreibung (by his son [Berlin, 1789, 2 vols.]); Herzog, Real-Encykl. 20, 653-662.\par J. P. L. \par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVAL. {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SACK, CARL HEINRICH\par \par Sack, Carl Heinrich, Dr.,\par \par a German theologian, son of F.S.G. Sack, was born at Berlin, Oct. 17, 1790. He studied at G\'f6ttingen and Berlin, and commenced his lectures at the Berlin University in 1817. In 1818 he was made professor extraordinary, and in 1832 professor of theology in Bonn. He died at Pappelsdorf, near Bonn, Oct. 16, 1875. Of his many works we mention Christliche Apologetik (Hamb. 1841): \emdash Christliche Polemik (ibid. 1838): \emdash Geschichte der Predigt von Mosheim bis Schleiermacher und Menken (Heidelberg, 1866): Theologische Aufsatze (Gotha, 1871, etc.). See Zuchold, Bibliotheca Theologica, 2, 1106 sq.; Theologisches Universal-Lexikon, s.v.; Koch, Gesch. des deutschen Kirchenliedes, 7, 353; Literarischer Handweiser (1875), p. 433; Theologisches Jahrbuch (Bielefeld, 1877), p. 228.\par \par B. P. \par \par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SACK, BRETHREN\par \par Sack, Brethren\par \par of the, a religious order, which was established about the beginning of the 13 th century, and had monasteries in France, Germany, Italy, and England. The brethren were very austere, for they neither ate flesh nor drank wine. Besides the sack which they wore, and from which they took the name, they went bare legged, and had only wooden sandals on their feet.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } $Dd rM w > : ; m * o  W*u]8 Q i0f3S0nK&SAGARIS@i SAGAREN, OR SANGAREN@i:.SAGAN@iSAGAH@aSAFFRONL,fh SAFFORD, JEFFERSON PRICEdhB6SAFEDtbhSAEWULF@a SADRf@aSADOLETO, PAOLO@\0$SADOLETO, JACOPO1]h2&SADOC@\SADLER, MICHAEL THOMASb@[>2SADLER, JOHN@[*SADLER, ANTHONY@Z0$SADLEIR, FRANCIS@Z2&~SADIR JUG6@Z$}SADHYAS@Y |SADEEL, ANTOINE @Y0${SADE, RICHARD DEl@X2&zSADE, PONS DE@X, ySADE, JEAN BAPTISTE DE@X>2xSADDUCEES 2 Gh(wSADDUCEES 18h(vSADDUC@7uSADDLER, ISAAC P.@74(tSADDLE~5hsSADDAEUS:@4"rSADAS@4qSADANANA@4"pSADAMIAS*@1"oSACY, ANTOINE ISAAC SILVESTRE DE, BARONH2h`TnSACY, LOUIS ISAAC LE MAISTRE DEH @1PDmSACROBOSCO, JOHN DE @08,lSACROBOSCO, CHRISTOPHER@0@4kSACRISTY@-"jSACRISTAN".h$iSACRIS SOLEMNIIS JUNCTA SINT GAUDIA @-XLhSACRING BELL`+h*gSACRILEGIUM (h(fSACRILEGE, CHRISTIAN VIEW OF~ @'J>eSACRILEGE%h$dSACRIFICIAL OFFERINGSh<0cSACRIFICIAL INSTRUMENTS8 @@4bSACRIFICIAL FESTIVALh:.aSACRIFICE, HUMAN)h2&`SACRIFICE 2h(_SACRIFICE 1Rh(^SACRIFICATIR@(]SACRED HEARTS, CONGREGATION OF THE@VJ\SACRED HEART, ORDER OF THE@F:[SACRED HEART, LADIES OF THEhH<ZSACRED HEART, FEAST OF THEhF:YSACRED HEART, BROTHERS OF THE<@L@XSACRARIUM^@$WSACRAMENTARY@@*VSACRAMENTARIANS@0$USACRAMENTALS@*TSACRAMENTAL SEALt@2&SSACRAMENTbh$RSACRA, IN SACRISh2&QSACRA8@PSACONAY, GABRIEL DE @8,OSACKCLOTHh$NSACKBUTh MSACK, FRIEDRICH SAMUEL GOTTFRIEDzhRFLSACK, FRIEDRICH FERDINAND ADOLPH@RFKSACK, CARL HEINRICH| @8,j LVALz {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SACK, FRIEDRICH FERDINAND ADOLPH\par \par Sack, Friedrich Ferdinand Adolph,\par \par brother of the preceding, was born at Berlin, July 16, 1788, and succeeded his father as court and cathedral preacher. He died Oct. 16, 1842. Together with his brother, he published Sermons (Bonn, 1835). He is also the author of the beautiful communion hymn Du ladest, Herr, zu deinem Tisch. See Koch, Gesch. des deutschen Kirchenliedes, 7, 353; Knapp, Evangel. Liederschatz, p. 1342, s.v.\par \par B. P. \par \par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SACK, FRIEDRICH SAMUEL GOTTFRIED\par Sack, Friedrich Samuel Gottfried,\par a Prussian theologian, court preacher, and Church governor, was born Sept. 4, 1738. His mother was of a French refugee family, which explains a fondness which Sack had for the French language and literature. He studied at the University of Frankfort-on-the-Oder from 1755 to 1757. The next two years he studied in England, coming into contact with Seeker, the archbishop of Canterbury, Kennicott, Lardner, and others. On his return to Germany he acted as tutor to a young nobleman, whom he accompanied to Frankfort-on-the-Oder, and where he again heard lectures. He now associated much with Tollner. After preaching at Magdeburg (1769-77), he was called by Frederick II as fifth court preacher to Berlin. Gradually he rose to the first place. In 1786 he became a member of the high consistory, The years 1804-13 were spent in arduous devotion to the oppressed and suffering people of the capital. In 1816 the king conferred upon him the title of bishop of the Evangelical Church. He died Oct. 2, 1817. In theology Sack was independent of the traditions of orthodoxy, but he stood firmly on evangelical ground. God as a person and Father; the Son as Redeemer and Offering; the Holy Spirit as comforter; love to God in Christ as the spring of the Christian life \emdash such were the elements of his theology. Though leaning somewhat towards rationalism, he yet firmly opposed the inroads which Kant's and Fichte's speculations made upon evangelical doctrine. He was one of the chief movers towards the union of the Lutheran and Reformed churches of Prussia, which was effected after his death. For some years he stood in the closest relations to the young Schleiermacher, and rejoiced in the promise of good which the latter would bring to the Church. WhenZ LVALj this young divine first issued his celebrated Reden (1799), Sack openly expressed his paternal grief at what seemed to him a leaning towards pantheism in this work. In later editions many of the criticized passages were modified. Sack was not productive; he was chiefly a practical worker. His published works consist of translations from English (Blair's Sermons) and Latin (Cicero's De Amicitia and De Senectute), two collections of Sermons, an Autobiography, and some minor Essays. See Herzog, Real-Encykl. 20, 662-667.\par J. P. L. \par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SACKBUT\par Sackbut\par \par is the rendering in the A.V. of the Chaldee sabbeka (written <START HEBREW>ak*B=s^<END HEBREW>\par in Dan 3:5, but <START HEBREW>ak*B=c^<END HEBREW>\par in Dan 3:7,10,15; thought by Gesenius, Thesaur. s.v., to be from <START HEBREW>Eb^s*<END HEBREW>\par , to weave, from the entwined strings), which the Sept. and Vulg. render by the corresponding <START GREEK>\par sambu/kh<END GREEK>\par , sambuca, which, in fact, are mere transcriptions of the Chaldee word. The English version has evidently imitated the word. The sackbut, however, is an old English name for a wind instrument (see the Bible Educator, 4, 150), but the Greek and Roman sambuca had strings (see Smith, Dict. of Class. Antiq. s.v.). "Mr. Chappell says (Pop. Mus. 1, 35), 'The sackbut was a bass trumpet with a slide, like the modern trombone.' It had a deep note, according to Drayton (Polyolbion, 4, 365):\par The hoboy, sagbut deep, recorder, and the flute.' \par The sambuca was a triangular instrument with four or more strings played with the fingers. According to Athenseus (14, 633), Masurius described it as having a shrill tone; and Euphorion, in his book on the Isthmian games, said that it was used by the Parthians and Troglodytes, and had four strings. Its invention is attributed to one Sambyx, and to Sibylla its first use (Athen. 14, 637). Juba, in the 4 th book of his Theatrical History, says it was discovered in Syria, but Neanthes of Cyzicum, in the first book of the Hours, assigns it to the poet Ibycus of Rhegium (ibid. 4, 77). This last tradition is followed by Suidas, who describes the sambuca as a kind of triangular harp. That it was a foreign instrument is clear from the statement of Strabo (10, 471), who says its name is barbarous. Isidore of Seville (Origin. 3, 20) appears to regard it as LVAL.a wind instrument, for he connects it with the sambucus, or elder, a kind of light wood of which pipes were made. The sambuca was early known at Rome, for Plaitus (Stich. 2, 2, 57) mentions the women who played it (sambucoe, or sambucistrioe, as they are called in Livy, 39, 6). It was a favorite among the Greeks (Polybius, 5, 37), and the Rhodian women appear to have been celebrated for their skill on this instrument (Athen. 4, 129). There was an engine called sambuca used in siege operations, which derived its name from the musical instrument, because, according to Athenaeus (14, 634), when raised it had the form of a ship and a ladder combined in one." Rawlinson (Ancient Monarchies, 3, 20) thinks that the Chaldee sabbeka was a large harp resting on the ground like that of the Egyptians. See MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SACKCLOTH\par Sackcloth\par (<START HEBREW>qc^<END HEBREW>\par , sak, from its net-like or sieve-like structure; a word which has descended pure in the Greek <START GREEK>\par sa/kko$<END GREEK>\par and modern languages) is the name of a coarse material, apparently made of goat's or camel's hair (Rev 6:12), and resembling the cilicium of the Romans (Gen 37:34; 1 Kings 20:31; 2 Kings 19:1 sq.; Matt 11:21; Luke 10:13; comp. Josephus, Ant. 7, 1, 6; Porphyr. Abstin. 4, 15; Plutarch, Superst. c. 7). It was probably dark brown or black in color (Isa 1:3; Rev 6:12; comp. the black dresses of the Greeks: Eurip. Alc. 440; Orest. 458; Helen, 1088; and Romans, Ovid, Metam. 6, 568; Tacit. Annal. 3, 2; Becker, Gallus, 2, 289; see Josephus, Life, 28). It was used for the following purposes:\par (1.) For making sacks for grain, the same word describing both the material and the article (Gen 42:25; Lev 11:32; Josh 9:4). Sacks are usually made of hair in the East; whence we may understand that where sackcloth is mentioned haircloth is intended.\par (2.) This material was certainly employed for making the rough garments used by mourners (Est 4:21), which were in extreme cases worn next the skin (1 Kings 21:27; 2 Kings 6:30; Job 16:15; Isa 32:11), and this even by females (Joel 1:8; 2 Macc 3:19), but at other times were worn over the coat or kethoneth (Ton. 3, 6) in lieu of the outer garment. The robe probably resembled a sack in shape, thus fitting closer to the person than the usual flowing garments of the Orientals (Niebuhr, Beschreib. p. 340), as we may infer from the application of the term <START HEBREW>rg^j*<END HEBREW>\par , to bind, to the process of putting it on (2 Sam 3:31; Ezra 7:18, etc.). It was confined by a girdle of similar material (Isa 3:24). Sometimes it was not laid aside even at night (1 KLVALings 21:27). Prophets and ascetics wore it over the underclothing, to signify the sincerity of their calling (Isa 20:2; Matt 3:4; see Wetstein, N.T. 1, 384 sq.). The Apocrypha intimates that this habit of sackcloth was that in which good people clothed themselves when they went to prayers (Bar 4:20). The use of haircloth as a penitential dress was retained by the early Oriental monks, hermits, and pilgrims, and was adopted by the Roman Church, which still retains it for the same purposes. Haircloth was, indeed, called "sackcloth" by the early Greek and Latin fathers. It does not appear that sackcloth is now much used in token of grief in the East; but ornaments are relinquished, the usual dress is neglected, or it is laid aside, and one coarse or old assumed in its place (comp. Liske, De Sacco et Cinere [Vitemb. 1693]). See MOURNING.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVAL{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SACONAY, GABRIEL DE\par \par Saconay, Gabriel De,\par \par a French theologian, was born near Lyons. While quite young, he was made canon of Lyons, and afterwards became dean of the chapter. He was one of the most zealous opponents of the Reformation. and was for some time censor of the city of Lyons. He died Aug. 3, 1580. His writings are principally controversial, and bitter in the extreme. They are, De la Providence de Dieu sur les Rois de France, with L'Histoire des Albigois (1568): \emdash Traite de la Vraie Idoltrie de notre Temps (1568): \emdash Discours des Premiers Troubles advenus a Lyons, written in answer to a Huguenot writing (La Genealogie et la Fin des Hugueneaux): \emdash and Decouverte du Calvinisme. Saconay also published an edition of the treatise of Henry VIII against Luther, to which he wrote a preface full of the most violent expressions. Calvin answered it by a satirical work called Gratulatio (1560).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } "LVALT6{\rtf1\ansi\ansicpg1252\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SACRAMENTALS\par \par Sacramentals,\par \par a name given to those rites which are of a sacramental character, but yet are not true sacraments-such as confirmation and matrimony.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SACRAMENTAL SEAL\par \par Sacramental Seal,\par \par an expression used by Romish writers to denote the obligation which rests upon the priesthood to conceal those things the knowledge of which is derived from sacramental confession.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SACRA\par \par Sacra\par \par (sacred rites), a general term used by the ancient Romans to denote all that belonged to the worship of the gods. The sacra were either public or private, the former applying to the worship conducted at the expense of the State, and the latter at the expense of families or single individuals. In both cases the whole services were performed by the pontiffs, who, in the case of the sacra publica, had also the charge of the funds set apart for these services. The sacra privata were generally nothing more than sacrifices to the Penates, or household gods.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SACRA, IN SACRIS\par Sacra, Circa, Or In Sacris.\par The power of the magistrate is scarcely allowed by any party in sacris (in sacred things), but many allow his power circa sacra (about sacred things). The 23 d chapter of the Westminster Confession says, however: "The civil magistrate may not assume to himself the administration of the word and sacraments for the power of the keys of the kingdom of heaven; yet he hath authority, and it is his duty, to take order that unity and peace be preserved in the Church, that the truth of God be kept pure and entire, that all blasphemies and heresies be suppressed, all corruptions and abuses in worship and discipline prevented or reformed, and all the ordinances of God duly settled, administered, and observed. For the better effecting whereof, he hath power to call synods, to be present at them, and to provide that whatsoever is transacted in them be according to the mind of God." It is noteworthy that one of the proof texts in the Westminster Confession, under this head, is Matt 2:4,5, Herod's calling together the sanhedrim when startled by the news of the birth of Christ \emdash a rival prince, as he thought, and whom he proposed to destroy. A large party object to this doctrine of the magistrate's power as Erastian and unscriptural, and maintain that the Church should be free of all control on the part of the State, and alike independent of its pay and its patronage. See ERASTIANISM. How the compromise is effected between the two powers in the Church of Scotland may be seen in the way in which the General Assembly is annually dismissed at the end of the statutory period beyond which it cannot prolong its sittings. Thus, in the year 1861, the moderator concluded his address by saying, "As this General Assembly was convened in the name and by authority of t LVAL he Lord Jesus Christ, so in the same name and by the same authority I now dissolve it, and appoint the next meeting of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland to be held in this place on Thursday, the 22 d day of May, 1862." The lord high commissioner then said: "Right reverend and right honorable, it is now my duty, in my sovereign's name, to dissolve this assembly; and, accordingly, I hereby declare this assembly dissolved in her name, and by the same authority I appoint the next General Assembly to meet on Thursday, the 22 d day of May, 1862." See SECULAR POWER.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\ansicpg1252\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SACRAMENT\par Sacrament\par (from the Lat. sacramentum, a military oath of enlistment), a word adopted by the writers of the Latin Church to denote those ordinances of religion by which Christians come under an obligation of obedience to God, and which obligation, they supposed, was equally sacred with that of an oath. Considering the simplicity of the manner and the brevity of the terms in which the Lord Jesus Christ instituted certain general and perpetual observances for the Church which he founded, it is difficult to repress amazement at the extent of the discussions and the voluminousness of the controversies that have sprung up in reference to them. Many of those controversies are now obsolete, and all of them shrink to comparative unimportance when the Word of God is taken as the one only source of authoritative instruction on the subject. In order to make proper distinctions between the divine teachings and human theories, and also to see how doctrines have been promulgated in successive periods without the shadow of scriptural authority, it is well first to note both the letter and the spirit of the New Testament teaching in reference to what we now call sacraments. We may then the more intelligently follow the line of historical development and practice, however that may have been corrupted from the simplicity of the Gospel. A negative lesson of no little significance is taught in the fact that the term sacrament is not found in the N.T.; neither is the Greek word <START GREEK>\par musth/rion<END GREEK>\par in any instance applied to either baptism or the Lord's supper, or any other outward observance. That word, however, came subsequently into ecclesiastical usage as the equivalent of the Latin sacramentum. The Greek Church still uses it in that sense, designating as the sevLVALen mysteries what the Roman Church calls the seven sacraments. \par I. Scriptural Statement of the Subject. \emdash The instructions given by the N.T. in reference to baptism and the Lord's supper are of two kinds:\par 1. Those found in the example and precepts of Christ himself;\par 2. Those found in the subsequent practice and teaching of the apostles. Introductory to both is the great fact with which the Gospel history opens, viz. John's baptism: that was distinctly declared to be a baptism of repentance, introductory to the kingdom of God about to be established by the promised Messiah. John's baptism, therefore, is to be regarded as a connecting link between the old and the new dispensation; and as it was prophetic of Christ's immediate advent, so it was sanctioned by the fact of Christ's accepting, indeed demanding, baptism at the hands of John, in order to "fulfil all righteousness." By this expression we may understand that Christ not only fulfilled, in his own person, the law of the Abrahamic covenant in circumcision, but also the spiritual law of Christianity which he was about to establish, and of which baptism was to be the appointed emblem. This view is corroborated in the fact that, in connection with this baptism, not only was the Messiahship of Christ attested by an approving voice from heaven, but by the descent upon him of the Holy Ghost (Matt 3:13-17; Mark 1:8-11; Luke 3:21,22). This great event occurred at the beginning of Christ's public ministry; and although, in the record of his ministrations, little is said of baptism, yet sufficient is recorded to indicate that the rite was practiced from the first as initiatory to Christian discipleship. It is summarily mentioned in John 4:1,2, "that Jesus made and baptized more disciples than John, though Jesus himself baptized not, but his disciples." In the preceding chapter (ver. 22) it had been stated that "Jesus and his disciples came into the land of Judaea; and there he tarried with them, and baptized." Hence we may infer that baLVALptism was fully established as a custom of the initial Church prior to the formal command by which, in the great Commission, its perpetual observance was enjoined (Matt 28:19). From the first exercise of their appointed office, the apostles preached baptism as a duty (Acts 2:38), and administered it to those professing Christianity (see Acts 2:41; 8:12,13,16,38; 9:18; 16:15,33; 18:8, etc.). See BAPTISM.\par The institution of the Lord's supper was, in some respects, similar. In his custom of fulfilling all righteousness, our Lord, on the night before his betrayal, assembled his disciples to eat the Passover (q.v.), in accordance with Jewish law and custom. In that connection he not only identified himself as the true Paschal Lamb, slain from the foundation of the world, but appointed bread and wine to be emblems of his body and blood, to be used by all his followers in perpetual commemoration of his impending sacrificial death (see Matt 26:26; Mark 14:22; Luke 22:19; 1 Cor 11:23-27). That this institution was observed by the apostles and the churches founded by them in the simplicity and sacredness of its original appointment is obvious from various statements and allusions in the Acts and Epistles; but we may search the whole New Testament record in vain for an account of any other appointments of a corresponding character. If, by analysis, we seek to determine what is peculiar and essential to baptism and the Lord's supper, when considered as ordinances of the Christian Church, the following characteristics will be found to inhere in both:\par 1. They were illustrated by our Lord's own example, and enjoined by his specific command;\par 2. They were enjoined upon the whole Church, and as of perpetual obligation;\par 3. They were recognized by the apostles and the New Testament churches in the character stated, and by them observed in the form and spirit of their appointment;\par 4. Each of the institutions named had an important significance with reference to the whole scheme of salvation, and wLVALas adapted to serve as a means of grace to all Christians. See LORD'S SUPPER.\par If, now, the ordinances named are to be considered as sacraments of the Christian Church (which has never been questioned or denied), it is evident that nothing else should be considered a sacrament in which the same characteristics do not in like manner inhere. Let the several points named be applied as tests to the five additional observances of the Greek and Roman churches, called by them sacraments \emdash viz. confirmation, matrimony, penance, orders, and extreme unction-and it will be seen how radically defective they all are.\par Keeping in view the fact that the term sacrament has no sanction from scriptural usage, a question of some importance arises as to how it came to its present significance and general adoption, also whether and to what extent the term itself has become an agency of error. In considering this question, it is well to go back in thought to the post-apostolic age, and trace downward, by successive steps, the development of ideas and customs in the Christian Church.\par 1. Ideas of peculiar sacredness could not fail to be associated with duties enjoined in the last commands of the Lord Jesus \emdash the recently crucified but now ascended Savior.\par 2. These ideas would be intensified in the participation of the Lord's supper, which, by its very design, addressed itself to the tenderest sympathies and highest moral purposes of the human soul.\par 3. As the act of communion demanded of each believer, not only self-examination as to his faith and spiritual life, but also an actual or implied pledge of future obedience and devotion to Christ, the Captain of our salvation, so that pledge might easily come to be regarded somewhat in the light of an oath.\par 4. More especially as Christians were taught to regard themselves as soldiers, called to fight the fight of faith and to war a good warfare, it would be natural to regard the act of devotion by which they pledged allegiance to Christ asLVAL very analogous to the sacramentum, or oath, by which Roman soldiers swore allegiance to their emperor. Hence the Lord's supper came to be called sacramentum eucharistoe. \par 5. In like manner, as baptism was regarded in the light of an enrolment to be a soldier of Jesus Christ, so it came to be called sacramentum aquac. Thus, or similarly, in point of historic fact, the term sacrament became generic and inclusive of the two and only observances enjoined by Christ as of universal and perpetual obligation upon the Church. Moreover, as both sacraments were designed to serve as outward signs of a promised invisible grace, they would naturally be reverenced as involving much that was incomprehensible to the natural mind, in fact, mysterious. Hence, in the Greek language, the term <START GREEK>\par musth/rion<END GREEK>\par (mystery) came to be used as the equivalent of sacramentum in the Latin. This term "mystery," however, became misleading by very natural processes. It had for a long time been applied to certain secret ceremonies, practiced specially among the Greeks, See ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES, and could hardly fail to suggest analogous and corrupting ideas to Christians at all inclined to a worldly policy The writers of the New Testament had, in fact, repeatedly used the words mystery and mysteries, but never in connection with either baptism, the Lord's supper, or any Christian ceremony. They had spoken of the mysteries of the kingdom of God, the mystery of faith, the mystery of godliness, and also of the Gospel as "the revelation of the mystery which was kept secret since the world began, but now is made manifest."\par II. Multiplication of the Sacraments such obviously appropriate uses the term mystery was, in ecclesiastical language, so far perverted as to be made almost exclusively to represent Christian ceremonies, a wide door was opened for the ingress of erroneous opinions and practice. The very term suggested secrecy where publicity was designed. It obviously prompted the artificial rulesLVAL of the disciplina arcani (q.v.), and thus strongly encouraged ceremonial instead of spiritual conversion. It also stimulated the inventiveness of ecclesiastics in the multiplication of so called sacraments. It gave countenance to priestly pretensions on the part of Christian ministers, and encouraged the imitation of Jewish and pagan rites. Combined with other influences of like nature, it contributed to that great perversion of the sacrament of the Lord's supper by which it came to be regarded as a propitiatory sacrifice \emdash a parent error, from which the mystical ceremonies and the doctrine of transubstantiation were logical outgrowths. Errors also arose from a loose application of the word sacramentum. As that term involved the generic idea of sacredness, so it came to be applied to various other usages that sprang up in the Church, with the tendency to attribute to them an importance and sanctity corresponding to those of the sacraments proper. For successive centuries the number of observances called, in this loose sense, sacraments was more or less varied and indefinite; one writer (Damian) enumerated twelve. But by degrees, the sacred number seven came to be adopted as the limit, yet not always in application to the same ceremonies or in the same order. The present enumeration of the Roman Church is credited to the schoolman Peter Lombard (d. 1164), although for at least three centuries later more or less controversy was maintained among the schoolmen as to the number and order of the sacraments. It was the General Council of Florence in 1439 that, following Peter Lombard and Thomas Aquinas, first assumed to define authoritatively the number as subsequently maintained by the Church of Rome. The definition or limitation then decreed was promulgated in a synodal epistle from pope Eugenius to the Armenians in 1442. The language of the decree is full and explicit, not only as to the number, but also as to the doctrine of the sacraments. It says:\par "The sacraments of the new law are seven \LVALemdash namely, baptism, confirmation, the eucharist, penance, extreme unction, orders, and matrimony \emdash which differ much from the sacraments of the old law: for those do not cause grace, but represent it as only to be given through the passion of Christ; but the sacraments of the new law contain grace, and confer it on those who worthily receive them. The first five are ordained for the spiritual perfection of each man in himself; the last two, for the government and multiplication of the whole Church.... All these sacraments are perfected in three ways \emdash namely, by things as to the material, by words as to the form, and by the person of the administrator who confers the sacrament with the intention of doing what the Church does \emdash of which, if any be wanting, the sacrament is not perfected. Among these sacraments there are three baptism, confirmation, and orders \emdash which impress indelibly on the soul a character: that is, a certain spiritual sign, distinguishing him from others. Hence they are not repeated on the same person. But the other four do not impress a character, and admit of reiteration."\par The sacramental theory of the Roman Catholic Church has rarely, if ever, been better stated. As thus formulated, it was an ingenious and authoritative digest of views that had been developed during long centuries in which tradition and superstitious inventiveness had usurped the supreme control in matters of religion. During that period the living oracles were silent, and nearly all the prevailing influences united to enhance the prerogatives of the clergy by attaching magical or supernatural influence to their supposed priestly functions. Baptism, loaded down with accumulated ceremonies, became the essential agency of regeneration; absolution from sin was given or withheld at the option of a priest; while extreme unction was regarded as an important, if not an essential passport to usher a dying person into the presence of God. But it was the Lord's supper in which all thatLVAL was most solemn and mysterious was concentrated. That rite had become the holy of holies in the Christianity then prevalent. In it the presence of the Lord Jesus Christ was believed to be secured as often as the priest performed the act of consecration; but the manner of that presence was for a long time undiscussed, being neither defined by canon, agitated before council, nor determined by pope. "During all those centuries no language was thought too strong to express the overpowering awe and reverence of the worshippers. The oratory of the pulpit and the hortatory treatise had indulged freely in the boldest images; the innate poetry of the faith had worked those images into realities." A specimen of the oratorical hyperbole employed in reference to this subject may be taken from Chrysostom, written in his treatise on the priesthood, about A.D. 380: "The priestly office is discharged upon earth, but holds the rank of heavenly things, and very rightly so.... For when you behold the Lord sacrificed and prostrate, and the priest standing over the sacrifice, and praying, and all stained with that precious blood, do you then suppose you are among men and standing upon earth? Are you not immediately transported to heaven? . . . Oh, the marvel! Oh, the love of God to man! He who sits with the Father on high is at that moment held in the hands of all, and gives himself to those who are willing to embrace and to receive him!"\par For centuries following Chrysostom, the prevalent ideas of the real presence in the eucharist were not only vague, but widely dissimilar, ranging from the border of a just spiritualism to a gross materialism, but with growing tendencies to the latter, until, at length, the more material the conception came to be of an actual and repeated sacrifice, the more it seemed to impress minds wholly uninstructed in Scripture truth. For a long period inquiries into the nature of the sacred mysteries were regarded as presumptive; but when, at length, speculation arose, the most startling theLVALorists excited the most attention. It was to Paschasius Radbert, a monk of Corvey ( A.D. 831), that the Roman Church was indebted for the first clear statement of what came afterwards to be known as the doctrine of transubstantiation. Although Paschasius did not employ that term, he fully set forth the idea which the term was afterwards invented to express. He taught that the substance of the bread and wine was actually annihilated, notwithstanding the corporeal form remained, in passing into and becoming the body and blood of the Redeemer \emdash the actual body and blood of Jesus Christ, which had been resuscitated in the resurrection, and which was now multiplied in countless numbers of times and places. He did not shrink from following out this theory to its grossest consequences, sustaining it by the narration of various miracles, such as the host bleeding and assuming the human form. It is not to be supposed that Paschasius originated this theory; his task was that of formulating it from the still cruder notions of the average popular and priestly mind of his day. But, dark as were the times in which he lived, his theory, when reduced to a connected statement, was too gross to pass unchallenged. A protracted discussion arose, known in ecclesiastical history as the First Eucharistic Controversy.\par Against the theory of Paschasius, Frudegard, a monk of another order, and Ratramnus, another monk of Corvey, urged sundry arguments, and quoted many passages from the fathers, especially from Augustine, showing that the body of Christ in the eucharist could not be the same body as that in which he was born, suffered, and rose again. Ratramnus, in fact, wrote a learned work entitled De Corpore et Sanguine Domini, in which he modestly but ably controverted the positions of his abbot, Paschasius. The latter had strongly urged those views of the sacrifice of the mass that had prevailed from the time of Gregory the Great. On the other hand, Ratramnus designated the eucharist as being only a commemorativeLVAL celebration of Christ's sacrifice, by remembrance of which Christians should make themselves capable of partaking of the divine grace of redemption. Rabanus Maurus, John Scotus Erigena, and others also wrote in opposition to the theory of Radbert. Thus the controversy was protracted into the 10 th century, but with a constantly increasing tendency to reject and silence all opposition to the extremest views as heretical. See TRANSUBSTANTIATION.\par Notwithstanding the popular drift in the line of transubstantiation, Berengar of Tours (q.v.), about the middle of the 11 th century, opened, by his acute and able opposition to the theory of Paschasius Radbert, what has been denominated the Second Eucharistic Controversy. His position was that the substance of the bread and wine was not changed by the consecration, but only their efficacy, thus maintaining a dynamic, as against an actual change. His chief literary opponent was Lanfranc (q.v.), but his ecclesiastical opponents were legion. In the apparent consciousness that he could not be answered, he was summarily arraigned by popes and prelates, before councils and synods, and forced repeatedly to renounce his doctrines on pain of death. As often as he was able to escape from the power of his persecutors, he recanted his successive renunciations of his doctrines respecting the sacraments, until he at length found a refuge in France, where he was permitted, at the age of ninety, to die in peace. His views found many adherents, both in France and Germany, who came to be known and proscribed as Berengarians.\par A synod of Rome in 1079 confirmed the doctrine of Paschasius Radbert; and, although for some years afterwards that doctrine was maintained by the use of other terms, it at length found definite expression in the term transubstantiation, which is said to have been first used by Hildebert of Tours (about 1134). Steps were now successively taken by which discussion was checked and opposition in the Church practically silenced. Pope Innocent III, at tLVALhe Lateran Council of 1215, made transubstantiation (q.v.) an unchangeable article of the Roman Catholic faith; pope Urban IV, in 1264, instituted the annual festival of Corpus Christi; and pope Clement 5, in 1311, reduced the doctrine in question to a liturgical form. By these means, not only the theologians and the clergy of the Church, but also the masses of the people, were committed to the actual deification of the host, or consecrated wafer. The withholding of the cup from the laity was deemed a logical sequence of the doctrine of transubstantiation of more controlling influence than the express command of Christ with reference to the cup \emdash "Drink ye all of it." The precept quoted was thenceforward conveniently limited to the clergy.\par From the periods named above, scholasticism was busy in the vindication and explanation, by various ingenious methods, of the new dogma; while in practice, the sacrifice of the mass became more than ever the center of the Roman ritual. Nor is it easy for Protestants in the 19 th century to understand how completely the combined influence of the decrees of the Church, the writings of the schoolmen, the ceremonies of the ritual, and the parade of festivals had blotted out of the public mind the simple scriptural idea of the eucharist, and substituted in its place a vague but blind superstition in reference to this now mutilated sacrament. The efforts made during successive centuries to give reality and impressiveness to the Roman doctrine of the sacraments, and especially that of the eucharist, had not been limited to traditional and preceptive influences; stupendous miracles in demonstration of it had been often and widely proclaimed. "Besides, the very nature of the doctrine itself adapted it singularly to retain its hold on an ignorant and superstitious generation. The notion once impressed upon the multitude that, when they celebrated one of the sacraments of their Church, they actually swallowed the real body and blood \emdash the very person of theiLVALr God \emdash was too intensely exciting, too attractive to their imagination, too closely connected with their senses, to be abandoned without great reluctance. We might, indeed, wonder how it was found possible to obtain so general a credence for a dogma than which, in its popular sense, no more audacious paradox was ever obtruded on the credulity of man; but, once received, once impressed on the belief, once embraced as an essential truth, it became so entirely essential, so predominant, so engrossing, as to take almost exclusive possession of the soul, and to throw a shade of comparative insignificance over every other tenet. To be deprived of this conviction; to be assured that the consecrated elements hitherto reverenced and adored as the very body of the Divinity were no more than bread and wine, unchanged by the sacerdotal consecration, either in substance or in accident, was, in the vulgar mind, to part with the portion of religion most nearly touching both feelings and practice. 'That they were robbed of their God' was the first impression produced upon ignorant devotees; and those who had nourished that ignorance, and found their profit in it \emdash the chiefs and champions of the system to which that dogma was so essential \emdash united in one great confederacy to propagate the cry" (Waddington, History of the Reformation, ch. 31).\par III. Roman Catholic View. \emdash The full and authoritative statement of the Roman Catholic doctrine concerning the sacraments is given in the Decree of the Council of Trent, as embraced in the following extract of the preface and in thirteen consecutive canons:\par "In order to complete the exposition of the wholesome doctrine of justification, published in the last session by the unanimous consent of the fathers, it hath been deemed proper to treat of the holy sacraments of the Church, by which all true righteousness is at first imparted, then increased, and afterwards restored, if lost. For which cause the sacred, holy, ecumenical, and general CoLVALuncil of Trent, lawfully assembled, etc., abiding by the doctrine of the Sacred Scriptures, the tradition of the apostles, and the uniform consent of other councils and of the fathers, hath resolved to frame and decree these following canons, in order to expel and extirpate the errors and heresies respecting the most holy sacraments which have appeared in these times \emdash artly the revival of heresies long ago condemned by our ancestors, partly new inventions and have proved highly detrimental to the purity of the Catholic Church and the salvation of souls. The remaining canons, necessary to the completion of the work, will be published hereafter, by the help of God.\par "Canon 1. Whoever shall affirm that the sacraments of the new law were not all instituted by Jesus Christ our Lord, or that they are more or fewer than seven \emdash amely, baptism, confirmation, eucharist, penance, extreme unction, orders, and matrimony \emdash r that any of these, is not truly and properly a sacrament, let him be accursed.\par "2. Whoever shall affirm that the sacraments of the new law only differ from those of the old law in that their ceremonies and external rites are different, let him be accursed.\par "3. Whoever shall affirm that these seven sacraments are in such sense equal that no one of them is in any respect more honorable than another, let him be accursed.\par "4. Whoever shall affirm that the sacraments of the new law are not necessary to salvation, but superfluous, or that men may obtain the grace of justification by faith only, without these sacraments (although it is granted that they are all not necessary to every individual), let him be accursed.\par "5. Whoever shall affirm that the sacraments were instituted solely for the purpose of strengthening our faith, let him be accursed.\par "6. Whoever shall affirm that the sacraments of the new law do not contain the grace which they signify, or that they do not confer that grace on those who place no obstacle in its way, as if they were onlyLVAL the external signs of grace or righteousness received by faith, and marks of Christian profession whereby the faithful are distinguished from unbelievers, let him be accursed.\par "7. Whosoever shall affirm that grace is not always given by these sacraments, and upon all persons, as far as God is concerned, if they be rightly received, but that it is only bestowed sometimes and on some persons, let him be accursed.\par "8. Whoever shall affirm that grace is not conferred by the sacraments of the new law, by their own power (ex opere operato), but that faith in the divine promise is all that is necessary to obtain grace, let him be accursed.\par "9. Whoever shall affirm that a character (that is, a certain spiritual and indelible mark) is not impressed upon the soul by the three sacraments of baptism, confirmation, and orders (for which reason they cannot be repeated), let him be accursed.\par "10. Whoever shall affirm that all Christians have power to preach the word and administer all the sacraments, let him be accursed.\par "11. Whoever shall affirm that, when ministers perform and confer a sacrament, it is not necessary that they should, at least, have the intention to do what the Church does, let him be accursed.\par "12. Whoever shall affirm that a minister who is in a state of mortal sin does not perform or confer a sacrament, although he observes everything that is essential to the performance and bestowment thereof, let him be accursed.\par "13. Whoever shall affirm that the received and approved rites of the Catholic Church, commonly used in the solemn administration of the sacraments, may be despised or omitted without sin by the minister, at his pleasure, or that any pastor of a church may change them for others, let him be accursed."\par Refutations of the Romanistic theory of the sacraments have been so numerous and detailed in the writings of the Reformers, from the days of Wycliffe down to the present time, that it seems only necessary to present here a brief resume of the stanLVALdard objections to it:\par 1. The sacramental theory of the Church of Rome wholly ignores the great scriptural doctrine of salvation by faith.\par 2. It elevates ceremonies above Christian obedience and duty.\par 3. It is artificial in naming as sacraments several things which Christ did not appoint as such \emdash e.g. confirmation, penance, orders, extreme unction, and matrimony; which last, instead of being instituted by Jesus Christ, was, in fact, appointed by God from the creation of man.\par 4. It is arbitrary in dividing the eucharist and denying the cup to the laity.\par 5. It unduly exalts the functions of the priesthood, making the gift of divine grace dependent on the intention of the administrator of a real or supposed sacrament.\par 6. It sanctions immorality in the highest offices and most sacred ceremonies of religion by maintaining that wickedness, even to the extent of mortal sin, does not disqualify the celebrant from truly administering the holy sacraments.\par 7. It gives incentives to bad living, and even to crime, by teaching men that the sacraments impress upon the soul an indelible character of grace and spirituality, irrespective of their personal faith or practice.\par The doctrine of the Old Catholics (q.v.), as stated in Art. VIII of the Theses agreed upon in the Conference at Bonn in 1874, is thus expressed:\par "1. We acknowledge that the number of the sacraments was fixed at seven first in the 12 th century, and then was received into the general teaching of the Church, not as a tradition coming down from the apostles or from the earliest times, but as the result of theological speculation.\par "2. Catholic theologians (i.e. Bellarmine) acknowledge, and we acknowledge with them, that baptism and the eucharist are 'principalia, proecipua, eximia salutis nostroe sacramenta.'"\par IV. Tenets of the Oriental Churches. \emdash The Greek Church, including the Russian, teaches that there are seven sacraments (<START GREEK>\par musth/ria<END GREEK>\par ), the sameLVAL as the Roman Catholic \emdash namely, baptism, unction with chrism, the eurcharist, penitence, the priesthood, lawful marriage, and extreme unction (Orthodoxa Confessio [ A.D. 1643], qu. 98; Dosithei Confessio [ A.D. 1672], deer. 15; Longer Catechism [prepared by Philaret, and approved by the Synod of A.D. 1839], qu. 285). That Church holds, indeed, some peculiarities as to the mode of administering certain of these sacraments; but they nevertheless strenuously maintain the divine character and essential importance of them all. See GREEK CHURCH.\par The Armenian and Coptic churches [see each] have substantially the same views upon the subject as the Greek Church. The orthodox Nestorians (q.v.), however, including the Christians of St. Thomas, believe, with Protestants, in two sacraments only, namely, baptism and the Lord's supper; but the "Chaldaean" branch, of course, coincides with the Roman view.\par V. Views of the Lutheran Reformers and of later Protestants. \emdash Notwithstanding the formidable combination of influences to popularize and maintain the doctrine of transubstantiation, many minds revolted against the absurdities it involved. Some individuals and sects went to the extreme of rejecting the sacraraments altogether; others, including most of those known as Reformers before the Reformation, alike objected to the invented and redundant sacraments, and pointed out many errors and abuses connected with the administration of baptism and the eucharist. This opposition, however, was manifested under many restraints and embarrassments, not merely caused by the spirit of persecution that was everywhere so rife, but by those prejudices and habits of mind to which the reformers themselves were subject. Bold and uncompromising as was Luther on most subjects in which Roman errors were involved, he nevertheless on the one topic now in question exhibited weaknesses of character and an infirmity of judgment that can only be accounted for by the influence of his education and early habits of thouLVALght. Even after that great man had fully accepted the doctrine of salvation by faith, and rejected the greater number of those errors and inventions by which the Roman system had made void the word and truth of God, he remained so tenacious of the doctrine of Christ's real and corporeal presence in the bread and wine of the eucharist as to make a violent and almost fatal issue with his fellow Reformers on that point. No argument was sufficient to move him from his fixed adherence to the literal interpretation of the phrase, "This is my body." Hence, not only he, but Melancthon and all those German Reformers who acted with them, while rejecting transubstantiation, rigidly adhered to that slight variation from it known as consubstantiation (q.v.). The controversies between Luther and Zwingli and their several adherents unhappily put in jeopardy some of the most important interests of the Reformation, and gave great cause of rejoicing to the partisans of the papacy. But for that unfortunate issue, which, at a very critical period, divided the Reformers and weakened their strength, it cannot be doubted that much more rapid progress would have been made in restoring to the Church the true but long lost idea of the supper of the Lord as instituted by him and appointed for the confirmation of faith in his atoning sacrifice. But, notwithstanding all hindrances, it is from the period of the Reformation that improvements may be noted in those doctrinal views of the sacraments which found expression in the creeds of representative churches. To show the successive steps of progress made as the result of controversy on the subject, quotations will now be given from several of the more celebrated creeds put forth during the 16 th century. The oldest of all the Protestant confessions of faith is that of Augsburg, of which several articles related to the sacraments. That celebrated document was prepared by Melancthon, and read, June 27, 1530, in the presence of the emperor Charles V and his court, including many promLVALinent Roman Catholic theologians. Although its tone was apologetic, nevertheless its utterances were distinctly Protestant, except in some of the articles relating to the sacraments.\par Part I, Art. VIII, allows the validity of the sacraments, although administered by evil men.\par Art. IX declares that baptism is necessary to salvation.\par Art. X is in these words: "Of the Lord's supper, they (the Lutherans) teach that the [true] body and blood of Christ are truly present [under the form of bread and wine], and are [there] communicated to those that eat in the Lord's supper."\par Art. XIII, On the Use of the Sacraments, contains the following language: "They were ordained, not only to be marks of profession among men, but rather that they should be signs and testimonies of the will of God towards us, set forth unto us to stir up and confirm faith in such as use them. Therefore men must use sacraments so as to join faith with them which believes the promises that are offered and declared unto us by the sacraments. Wherefore they (the Lutherans) condemn those that teach that the sacraments do justify by the work done (ex opere operato), and do not teach that faith which believes the remission of sins is requisite in the sacraments."\par Part II, Art. I, enjoins communion in both kinds, and discountenances the carrying about the elements in procession.\par Art. III says: "Our churches are wrongfully accused of having abolished the Mass; for the mass is still retained among us, and celebrated with great reverence." Nevertheless, the article proceeds to condemn private masses as being celebrated only for lucre's sake.\par The Augsburg Confession does not definitely assert, but clearly implies, that the sacraments are only two in number. The Helvetic Confession of 1536 was explicit on that point, stating, also, that both baptism and the eucharist are only outward signs of the hidden things, or inward graces, spiritually imparted to faith in the promises of God. That confession also denies that theLVAL body and blood of Christ are naturally united, locally included, or actually present in the material bread and wine; but it affirms that the bread and wine, by the institution of God, are symbols through which, as from Christ himself, by the ministry of the Church, a true spiritual communication of his body and blood is made, not in perishable food, but for the sustenance of the soul's life.\par In the further development of Protestantism, the most noted ecclesiastical statement of the doctrine of the sacraments is found in the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England, originally adopted in 1563. The following extracts embrace the more important points:\par "Sacraments ordained of Christ be not only badges or tokens of Christian men's profession, but rather they be certain sure witnesses and effectual signs of grace and God's good will towards us, by the which he doth work invisibly in us, and doth not only quicken, but also strengthen and confirm, our faith in him." "There are two sacraments ordained of Christ our Lord in the Gospel; that is to say, baptism and the supper of the Lord." "Those five commonly called sacraments \emdash hat is to say, confirmation, penance, orders, matrimony, and extreme unction \emdash re not to be counted for sacraments of the Gospel, being such as have grown partly of the corrupt following of the apostles, partly are states of life allowed in the Scriptures, but yet have not like nature of sacraments with baptism and the Lord's supper, for that they have not any visible sign or ceremony ordained of God." "The sacraments were not ordained of Christ to be gazed upon, or to be carried about, but that we should duly use them; and in such only as worthily receive the same they have a wholesome effect or operation.... Transubstantiation (or the change of the substance of bread and wine) in the supper of the Lord cannot be proved by Holy Writ, but is repugnant to the plain words of Scripture, overthrows the nature of a sacrament, and hath given occasion to many supeLVALrstitions. The body of Christ is given, taken, and eaten in the supper only after a heavenly and spiritual manner; and the mean whereby the body of Christ is received and eaten in the supper is faith."\par In the three symbols above quoted may be seen the types of doctrine which have prevailed, with slight variations of expression, in all Protestant evangelical churches. The Lutheran churches of Europe and America have alone followed the doctrines of the Augsburg Confession. The Calvinistic churches of all countries have followed, in the main, the Zwinglian doctrine as set forth in the first Helvetic Confession; while the formula of the Church of England has been adopted by the Methodist churches of Great Britain and America and the Protestant Episcopal Church of the United States.\par Notwithstanding the variations of views and statements that prevailed among the different branches of early Protestantism, yet so substantial was the unity among all classes of the reformers in rejecting the doctrine of the opus operatum, and also, as sacraments, all observances besides baptism and the Lord's supper, that the general drift of the Protestant doctrine became widely diffused and accepted during the first period of the Reformation. That the influence of counter discussion had come to be greatly dreaded by the Roman theologians is obvious from several expressions made use of by the Council of Trent in 1547. Nevertheless, as we have seen, that council proceeded to reaffirm the mediaeval theories of the sacraments in their most objectionable forms.\par In many points of view, it may be regarded as extremely unfortunate that among the active agents of the Reformation there arose serious differences of views as to the sacraments, and more especially that those differences resulted in actual divisions and oppositions between brethren agreed in general principles and striving for common results. On the other hand, it is not difficult to infer that much discussion was necessary at that period as a means of clearLVALing away the misconceptions of preceding ages, and of bringing out scriptural truth into a prominent light. It is impracticable and quite unnecessary here to outline the successive and protracted controversies with reference to the sacraments which took place between Luther and Zwingli and their successive followers for several generations, or, indeed, the somewhat different controversies that prevailed in Great Britain, bearing upon the same subject. It is, however, only just to remark that the influence of John Calvin in the Protestant sacramental controversy was very opportune and very powerful. As a contemporary and friend both of Luther and Zwingli, he sought to mediate between the extreme views of both. His theory was, in fact, an ingenious compromise between the realism of Luther and the idealism of Zwingli. He adopted the figurative interpretation of Christ's words, <START GREEK>\par tou=to/ e)sti to\\ sw=ma/ mou<END GREEK>\par , and rejected all carnal and materialistic conceptions of the eucharistic mystery; but he at the same time strongly asserted a spiritual real presence and communion of Christ's body and blood for the nourishment of the soul. "He taught that believers, while they receive with their mouths the visible elements, receive also by faith the spiritual realities signified and sealed thereby \emdash amely, the benefit of the atoning sacrifice on the cross and the life-giving virtue of Christ's glorified humanity in heaven, which the Holy Ghost conveys to the soul in a supernatural manner; while unbelieving or unworthy communicants, having no inward connection with Christ, receive only bread and wine to their own judgment." Luther had always insisted upon the corporeal presence and the oral manducation of the body and blood of Christ by communicants. Calvin substituted for that idea the virtual, or dynamic, presence of Christ's humanity, and a spiritual reception and assimilation of the same by the act of faith and through the mediation of the Holy Spirit. This view was substLVALantially adopted by the writers and adherents of the Heidelberg Catechism, and, in fact, passed into all the leading Reformed confessions of faith. In fact, Melancthon, during the latter period of his life, substantially approved of Calvin's doctrine of the Lord's supper. That circumstance gave rise to a controversy in the bosom of the Lutheran Church, by which it was divided into Lutherans, or, more properly, ultra-Lutherans, and Melancthonians, or Philippists. Luther's doctrine, by a literal interpretation of the words of institution, not only involved the oral manducation, but the practical ubiquity, of the body of Christ. Under the influence of Bucer and Calvin, and a further study of Augustine and of the Holy Scriptures, Melancthon had rejected both these views; although, through modesty and strong personal attachment, he did not separate from Luther or define an opposite theory. Luther, though grieved at these changes of view, nevertheless did not withdraw his friendship from Melancthon; but when both were dead, direct issues were made between their respective followers. A long and bitter controversy ensued, which extended to several other topics of theology, as well as that relating to the ubiquity, or multipresence, of Christ's body. The high Lutherans insisted upon ubiquity as a necessary result of the real communication of the two natures in Christ; while the Philippists and Calvinists rejected it as inconsistent with the nature of a body, with the reality of Christ's ascension, and with the general principle that the infinite cannot be comprehended or shut up in the finite. At the end of the controversy, the views of the extreme Lutherans became limited to only a portion of the Protestants of Germany; while those of Melancthon and Calvin were adopted by the Reformed churches of Germany, Switzerland, France, and the Netherlands. Practically, the same views were embodied in the later Helvetic confessions, in the creeds and catechisms of the Scotch Kirk, and in the Westminster Confession.\par LVAL During the last three hundred years a great degree of practical unity has prevailed throughout Protestant Christendom in reference to the theory of the sacraments. This fact may be attributed to the general use and recognized authority of the Word of God. There have, indeed, been some small sects which, following the views of Socinus, have, by their theories, reduced the sacraments to mere commemorative observances, having a certain emblematic significance, but void of any spiritual influence. The Friends, or Quakers, have even rejected the sacraments as not designed for continued observance, at least in an outward form. They claim that the one baptism appointed for perpetuity among Christ's followers is the baptism of the Holy Ghost, and the true Lord's supper is that alluded to in Rev 3:20: "Behold, I stand at the door, and knock: if any man hear my voice, and open the door, I will come in to him, and will sup with him, and he with me." Aside from such slight exceptions, the great body of Protestants, while rejecting the mass and all other superstitious ceremonies of the Roman Catholic Church, have sought to practice the ordinances of baptism and the Lord's supper both in the form and spirit of their original appointment. It is true that somewhat extended controversies have arisen as to the subjects and the mode of baptism, prompted chiefly by the exclusive claims of those who would reject from the Lord's supper all who have not been baptized by immersion (q.v.; also INFANT BAPTISM). Another form of exception to the general Protestant sentiment has been exhibited by that class of Anglicans and others who have distinguished themselves by those Romanizing tendencies which have so frequently terminated in adhesion to the Church of Rome, with her full list of sacraments.\par VI. Literature. \emdash Taking into view all the phases of controversy that have been developed in reference to the sacraments, the literature of the subject is exceedingly voluminous; but by far the greater part of it is now obsLVALolete and never likely to be reproduced. That the discussions of the past have, on the whole, had a favorable issue is indicated by the fact that the great majority of modern publications relating to baptism and the Lord's supper are of a practical character, aiming to set forth the design, the obligations to their observance, and the duties growing out of them. Publications of this character are so numerous and so common that an attempt to give a full or even a specimen list of their titles is deemed quite unnecessary. The following are chiefly books which discuss the broader aspects of the sacraments in general, or which furnish historical data respecting the development of sacramental theories: Chrysostom, On the Priesthood (Homilies); Augustine, On Catechising the Ignorant; On Baptism (Sermons 218, 272); On True Religion; Ambrose, On the Sacraments; Gregory Nazianzum, Oration 60; Gregory of Nyssa, Catechetical Orations; Cyril of Jerusalem, Catechetical Discourses; Gregory the Great, Liturgy; Book of Morals; the so called Apostolic Constitutions (bk. 8); Bingham, Antiquities of the Christian Church; Hagenbach, History of Doctrines; Neander, Church History; Gieseler, Church History; Melancthon, Sententia de Coena Domini; Calvin, De Coena Domini; Albertin, De Eucharistia; Beza, Discourses; Cranmer, Definition of the True Doctrine of the Lord's Supper; Cudworth, True Notion of the Lord's Supper; Halley, On Symbolic Institutions; Barrows, Sermons; South, Sermons; Owen, Sacramental Discourses; Brevant, Sacrament and Sacrifice; Willet, Synopsis Papismi; Elliott, Romanism; Bennett, History of the Eucharist; Whately, On the Sacraments; Adam Clarke, On the Eucharist; Luckey, On the Lord's Supper; Nevin, Mystical Presence; Harbaugh, Creed and Cultus; and Essays by other authors in Tercentenary Monument of the Heidelberg Catechism. The authors who have discussed the doctrine of the sacraments as a topic of theology are almost innumerable. See also all Church creeds, e.g. Schaff, Creeds of the Churches (N.Y. 1JLVALZ878, 3 vols. 8 vo).\par D. P. K. \par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVAL@ {\rtf1\ansi\ansicpg1252\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SACRAMENTARY\par \par Sacramentary,\par \par the name of a book in the Romish Church containing the collects, together with the canon, or that part of the sacramental service which is invariable.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SACRAMENTARIANS\par \par Sacramentarians,\par \par a controversial name given by the Lutherans to the Zwinglians to designate their belief that the consecrated elements in the eucharist are merely sacramental symbols, and not in any way the means by which the body and blood of Christ are really and truly present to, and conveyed to, the faithful partaker of them. The third volume of Schlusselburg's Hoereticorum Catalogus contains 492 pages "De Secta Sacramentariorum qui Cingliani seu Calvinistae vocantur." See ZWINGLIANS.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } TLVAL f{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SACRED HEART, BROTHERS OF THE\par Sacred Heart, Brothers Of The,\par \par a lay order in the Roman Catholic Church devoted to the instruction of youth, especially in France, where it was founded by the abbe Coindre in 1826, and whence it extended in 1847 to the United States. The Brothers have academies, orphan asylums, and schools, with more than 600 boys under their care, in Kentucky, Mississippi, and Louisiana.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SACRARIUM\par \par Sacrarium,\par \par a term employed by the ancient Romans to denote any place in which sacred things were deposited. A sacrarium was either public or private, the former being a part of a temple in which the idol stood, and the latter the part of a private house in which the Penates were kept. In the early Latin Church the name was given to the chancel or bema, and also to the side table (oblationarium) on which the offerings of the people were deposited.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SACRED HEART, FEAST OF THE\par Sacred Heart (Of Jesus), Feast Of The,\par a festival of comparatively modern institution in the Roman Catholic Church, and for a time the subject of much controversy among Roman Catholics themselves. Its origin is traced to a vision recorded of a French nun of the Order of the Visitation, named Mary Margaret Alacoque, who lived at Paray-le-Monial, in Burgundy, in the latter half of the 17 th century, and whose enthusiasm led her to practice a special devotion to the heart of the Saviour. This devotion was gradually propagated in France, and at length was approved by pope Clement XII in 1732 and 1736, and by Clement XIII in 1765. The festival is held on the Friday after the octave of Corpus Christi.\par This festival has for its principal object to excite in the hearts of those who celebrate it a feeling of love to Jesus. It has doubtless given origin to the societies of cognate title. The instructions to these for each day in the week are peculiar. Thus:\par " Sunday. \emdash Yon will enter into the opened heart of Jesus as into a furnace of love, there to purify yourself from all stains contracted during the week, and to destroy the life of sin, that you may live the life of pure love, which will transform all into itself. This day will be dedicated to a special homage to the blessed Trinity.\par "Monday. \emdash You will look on yourself as a criminal, who desires to appease his judge by sorrow for his sins, and who is ready to make satisfaction to his justice. Yon will enter in spirit into the heart of Jesus, in order to enclose yourself in that prison of love. \par "Tuesday. \emdash You will enter into the heart of Jesus as into a school, in which you are one of his disciples, In this school is learned the science of the saints, the science of pure love, whi LVAL& ch makes us forget all worldly sciences.\par "Wednesday. \emdash You will enter into the heart of Jesus as a passenger into a ship. \par "Thursday. \emdash You will enter into the heart of Jesus Christ as a friend who is invited to the feast of his friend. On this day you will perform all your actions in the spirit of love.\par "Friday. \emdash You will contemplate Jesus on the cross as a tender mother, who has brought you forth in his heart, with inexpressible pailis; you will repose in his arms as a child in the arms of its mother.\par "Saturday. \emdash You will offer yourself to the heart of Jesus as a victim coming up to the temple to be immolated and led before the sacrificer."\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SACRED HEART, LADIES OF THE\par Sacred Heart (Of Jesuts), Ladies Of The,\par \par a religious congregation of the Roman Catholic Church, founded in Paris Nov. 21, 1800, and devoted to education. In that year Joseph Desird Varin, superior of the Fathers of the Faith, desirous of establishing a society of women who would devote themselves to the education of young ladies of the higher classes, selected Madeleine Sophie Louise Barat and Octavie Bailly. On Nov. 21 they consecrated themselves to the Heart of Jesus, and opened a school in Paris. They removed to Amiens in 1801, where both their community and pupils increased rapidly. Madame Barat was chosen superior in 1802, branch establishments were founded, and in 1806 a first chapter of the order was held, at which that lady was chosen superior-general, which post she retained till her death, in 1865. Pere Varin completed his draft of the proposed constitutions in 1825, and they were approved by Leo XII Dec. 22, 1826. Being invited by the pope to Rome, they established themselves in the convent and church of Trinita de' Monti. They spread thence to the chief cities of Italy, and soon owned flourishing schools in Austria, Bavaria, Prussia, Belgium, England, and Ireland. They had come' to the United States in 1817 with bishop Dubourg, of New Orleans, and founded a house near St. Louis, Mo. Their increase in this country is chiefly owing to the late archbishop Hughes, to Madame Elizabeth Gallitzin, and especially to Madame Aloysia Hardey, who founded the majority of the American houses. They opened a school at the corner of Houston and Mulberry streets, New York, and now the order has spread to the principal states of the Union, to the Canadian provinces, Cuba, and Chili. The rules and constitutions are closely modelled on those of the Society of Jesus inLVAL all that regards the conditions for membership, training, degrees, elections, etc. The members employed in teaching and governing are styled "choir religious, "the others "lay sisters." According to Appletons' Cyclopoedia, the order had (1875): "In France, 8 provinces and 42 establishments, including 1 in Algiers; the province of Belgium and Holland, with 4 establishments; that of England and Ireland, with 5; that of Italy, with 5; that of Spain, with 3; and that of Austria, with 5. In America, they had in the United States 3 provinces, with 21 houses; the province of Canada, with 5; and the province of Chili, with 5, besides an establishment at Havanna. The number of 'choir religious' was 2325, and that of lay sisters 1947; total 4272. The central house of the whole order and the residence of the superior general is in the Boulevard des Invalides, Paris."\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVAL` {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SACRED HEARTS, CONGREGATION OF THE\par \par Sacred Hearts (Of Jesus And Mary), Congregation Of The,\par \par a religious order in the Roman Catholic Church, founded at Poitiers in 1800 by M. Coudrin aln Madame Ayme de la Chevallerie, for the cultivation of personal piety (hence it is sometimes styled the Order of the Perpetual Adoration of the Holy Host), the education of youth, missionary labors, etc. The Congregation has houses in various parts of France. See Migne, Diet. des Ordres Religieux, 4, 1277 sq.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SACRED HEART, ORDER OF THE\par \par Sacred Heart (Of Mary), Order Of The,\par \par a society of nuns established at Bange, in France, by the abbe Brault in 1755, and devoted to the care of the infirm and neglected, especially during the French Revolution.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par }  LVAL {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SACRIFICATI\par \par Sacrificati,\par \par Christians who, to avoid condemnation before a heathen tribunal, had offered sacrifice to an idol. When such persons, after the persecution was over, returned to the Church, they were obliged to undergo a very rigid penance before they could be readmitted into its fellowship. Sacrificati is their denomination as penitents, after their return to the faith. Those who continued in idolatry were simply apostates. See LIBELLATICI.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\ansicpg1252\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SACRIFICE\par Sacrifice,\par properly so called, is the solemn infliction of death on a living creature, generally by effusion of its blood, in a way of religious worship; and the presenting of this act to the Deity as a supplication for the pardon of sin, and a supposed mean of compensation for the insult and injury thereby offered to his majesty and government. Among the Hebrews it was an offering made to God on his altar by the hand of a lawful minister. Sacrifice differed from oblation: in a sacrifice there was a real change or destruction of the thing offered, whereas an oblation was but a simple offering or gift. In the Mosaic economy it was the main public form of worship. See SACRIFICIAL OFFERINGS.\par I. Scripture Terms.-The following are the original words used in the Bible to express the sacrificial act:\par 1. <START HEBREW>hj*n=m!<END HEBREW>\par , minchah, from the obsolete root <START HEBREW>hn^m*<END HEBREW>\par , "to give;" used in Gen 32:13,20,21, of a gift from Jacob to Esau (Sept. <START GREEK>\par dw=ron<END GREEK>\par ); in 2 Sam 8:2,6 (<START GREEK>\par ce/nia<END GREEK>\par ), in 1 Kings 4:21 (<START GREEK>\par dw=ra<END GREEK>\par ), in 2 Kings 17:4 (<START GREEK>\par manaa/<END GREEK>\par ), of a tribute from a vassal king; in Gen 4:3,5, of a sacrifice generally (<START GREEK>\par dw=ron<END GREEK>\par and <START GREEK>\par qusi/a<END GREEK>\par , indifferently); and in Lev 2:1,4,5,6, joined with the word korban, of an unbloody sacrifice, or "meat offering" (generally <START GREEK>\par dw=ronq usi/a<END GREEK>\par ). Its derivation and usage point to that idea of sacrifice which represents it as a eucharistic gift to God our King. See MINCHAH.\par 2. <START HEBREW>/B*r=q*<END HEBREW>\par , korban (derived from the root <START HEBREW>br^q*<ENDLVAL HEBREW>\par , "to approach," or [in Hiphil] to "make to approach"); used with minchah in Lev 2:1,4,5,6 (Sept. <START GREEK>\par dw=ronq usi/a<END GREEK>\par ), generally rendered <START GREEK>\par dw=ron<END GREEK>\par (see Mark 7:11, <START GREEK>\par korba=n, o% e)sti dw=ron<END GREEK>\par ) or <START GREEK>\par prosfora/<END GREEK>\par . The idea of a gift hardly seems inherent in the root. which rather points to sacrifice, as a symbol of communion or covenant between God and man. See CORBAN.\par 3. <START HEBREW>jb^z#<END HEBREW>\par , zebach (derived from the root <START HEBREW>jb^z*<END HEBREW>\par , to "slaughter animals," especially to "slay in sacrifice"), refers emphatically to a bloody sacrifice, one in which the shedding of blood is the essential idea. Thus it is opposed to nminchah in Ps 40:6 (<START GREEK>\par qusi/an kai\\ prosfora/n<END GREEK>\par ), and to olah (the whole burned offering) in Ex 10:25; 18:12, etc. With it the expiatory idea of sacrifice is naturally connected. See VICTIM.\par 4. In the New Test. the comprehensive term is <START GREEK>\par qusi/a<END GREEK>\par (from <START GREEK>\par qu/w<END GREEK>\par , which seems radically to express the fuming up of the sacrificial smoke), which is used both of the victim offered and of the act of immolation, whether literal or figurative. Distinct from these general terms, and often appended to them, are the words denoting special kinds of sacrifice. See OFFERING.\par 5. <START HEBREW>hl*ou<END HEBREW>\par , olah (Sept. generally <START GREEK>\par o(lokau/twma<END GREEK>\par ), the "whole burned offering." See BURNED OFFERING.\par 6. <START HEBREW><l#v#<END HEBREW>\par , shelem (Sept. <START GREEK>\par qusi/a swthri/ou<END GREEK>\par ), used frequently with <START HEBREW>hb^z#<END HEBREW>\par , and sometimes called <START HEBREW>/B*r=q*<END HEBREW>\par , the "peace-" or "thank offering." See each of these words.\par 7. <START HEBREW>taF*j^<END HEBREW>\par , chattath (Sept. generally <START GREEK>LVAL\par peri\\ a(marti/a$<END GREEK>\par ), the "sin offering" (q.v.).\par 8. <START HEBREW><v*a*<END HEBREW>\par , asham (Sept. generally <START GREEK>\par plhmmelei/a<END GREEK>\par ), the "trespass offering" (q.v.).\par 9. <START HEBREW>hV#a!<END HEBREW>\par , ishsheh (from <START HEBREW>va@<END HEBREW>\par , fire), a "sacrifice made by fire;" spoken of every kind of sacrifice and offering, as commonly burned (Lev 2:3,10), and even of those not consumed by fire (14:7,9); but usually in the ritual formula, "a sacrifice of sweet odor to Jehovah" (1:9,13,17; 2:2,9; 3:5; comp. Ex 29:41; Lev 8:1:121; briefly, Ex 29:18,25; Lev 2:16). See FIRE.\par 10. <START HEBREW>hd*oT<END HEBREW>\par , todah, is used in a figurative sense only, a "a sacrifice of praise." See PRAISE.\par 11. <START HEBREW>gj*<END HEBREW>\par , chag (from <START HEBREW>gg^h*<END HEBREW>\par , to dance in religious joy), is s properly a festival only; but by metonymy is occasionally used for the sacrificial victims of such occasions (Ex 23:18; Ps 118:27; Mal 2:3). See FESTIVAL. The term "sacrifice" is sometimes used figuratively for deep repentance (Ps 51:17), for the good works of believers (Phil 4:18; Heb 13:16), and for the duties of prayer and praise (Rom 12:1; Heb 13:15; 1 Peter 2:5).\par II. Origin of Sacrifice. \emdash Did it arise from a natural instinct of man, sanctioned and guided by God, or was it the subject of some distinct primeval revelation? This is a question the importance of which has probably been exaggerated. There can be no doubt that sacrifice was sanctioned by God's law, with a special typical reference to the atonement of Christ; its universal prevalence, independent of, and often opposed to, man's natural reasonings on his relation to God, shows it to have been primeval, and deeply rooted in the instincts of humanity. Whether it was first enjoined by an external command, or whether it was based on that sense of sin and lost communion with God which is stamped by his hand on the heart of man, is a hLVAListorical question, perhaps insoluble, probably one which cannot be treated at all, except in connection with some general theory of the method of primeval revelation, but certainly one which does not affect the authority and the meaning of the rite itself. We need not discuss here the theory of the old English deists, such as Blount and Tyndale, that, as cruel men delighted in bloodshed, so they conceived God to be like themselves, and sought to please and appease him by the slaughter of innocent beasts; or the specious improvement of this theory which Spencer (De Leg. Hebr. Rit. 1. 3, diss. 2) framed, that men sacrificed originally because of the savage wildness of their nature, and that God accepted and ratified their grim worship to restrain them from what was worse. The question is now proposed in this form: Did sacrifice arise from the natural religious instinct of man, with or without (for both views are held) an unconscious inspiration of the Divine Spirit, or did it originate in a distinct divine revelation? Those who advocate the former view speak of sacrifice as the "free expression of the divinely determined nature of man" (Neumann). "Man sacrifices because of his inalienable divine likeness, according to which he cannot cease to seek that communion with God for which he was created, even through such an effectual self sacrifice as is exhibited in sacrifice. Sacrifices have thus been as little an arbitrary invention of man as prayer. Like prayer, they have originated in an inner necessity to which man freely surrenders himself" (Oehler, in Herzog's Real-Encykl. 10, 617).\par 1. One recent writer on the subject (Davison, Inquiry into the Origin and Intent of Primitive Sacrifice, 1825) adduces (on the authority of Spencer and Outram) the consent of the fathers in favor of the human origin of primitive patriarchal sacrifice, and alleges that the notion of its divine origin is "a mere modern figment, excogitated in the presumptively speculative age of innovating Puritanism." This assertion haLVALs, in part, been met by Faber (Treatise on the Origin of Expiatory Sacrifice, 1827), who shows that the only authorities adduced by Outram (De Sacrificiis) and Spencer (De Leg. Hebr.) are Justin Martyr, Chrysostom, the author of the work called Apostolical Constitutions, and the author of the Questions and Answers to the Orthodox, commonly printed with the works of Justin Martyr. Of the early theologians thus adduced, the last three are positive and explicit in their assertion, while the sentiments of Justin Martyr are gathered rather by implication than in consequence of any direct avowal. He says, "As circumcision commenced from Abraham, so the Sabbath, and sacrifices, and oblations, and festivals commenced from Moses;" which clearly intimates that he considered primitive sacrifice as a human invention until made by the law a matter of religious obligation. The great body of the fathers are silent as to the origin of sacrifice; but a considerable number of them, cited by Spencer (De Leg. Hebr. p. 646 sq.), held that sacrifice was admitted into the law through condescension to the weakness of the people, who had been familiarized with it in Egypt, and, if not allowed to sacrifice ta God, would have been tempted to sacrifice to the idols of their heathen neighbors. The ancient writers who held this opinion are Justin Martyr, Origen, Tertullian, Chrysostom, Theodoret, Cyril of Alexandria, Epiphanius of Salamis, Irenaeus, Jerome, Procopias, Eucherius, Anastatius, and the author of the Apostolical Constitutions. But out. of the entire number, only the four already mentioned allege incidentally the human origin of primitive sacrifice; the rest are silent on this point. Outram, indeed (De Sacrif. lib. 1, cap. 1, \'a7 6, p. 8, 9), thinks that in giving this opinion they virtually deny the divine origin of sacrifice. But it is fairly answered that the assertion, be it right or be it wrong, that sacrifice was introduced into the law from condescension to the Egyptianizing weakness of the people, furnishes no LVALlegitimate proof that the persons entertaining this opinion held the mere human origin of primitive patriarchal sacrifice, and affords no ground for alleging the consent of Christian antiquity in favor of that opinion. Such persons could not but have known that the rite of sacrifice existed anterior to the rise of pagan idolatry; and hence the notion which they entertained leaves the question as to the primitive origin of sacrifice entirely open, so far as they are concerned. Paganism, whether in Egypt or elsewhere merely borrowed the rite from pure patriarchism, which already possessed it; and unless a writer expressly declares such to be his opinion, we are not warranted in concluding that he held the human origin of primitive patriarchal sacrifice, simply because he conceives that a system of sacrificial service had been immediately adopted into the law from paganism out of condescension to the weakness of the people. Besides, some of these very fathers held language with respect to primitive sacrifice not much in favor of the interpretation which has, on this ground, been given to their sentiments. Thus, according to Cyril, "God accepted the sacrifice of Abel and rejected the sacrifice of Cain, because it was fitting that posterity should learn from thence how they might blamelessly offer unto God his meet and due honor." If, then, these authorities be taken as neutral on the question, with the four exceptions already indicated, we shall find whatever authority we ascribe to these more than counterbalanced by the testimony of other ancient witnesses in favor of the divine origin of primitive sacrifice. Philo-Judoeus says, "Abel brought neither the same oblation as Cain, nor in the sane manner; but, instead of things inanimate, he brought things animate; and instead of later and secondary products, he brought the older and the first: for he offered in sacrifice from the firstlings of his flock, and from their fat, according to the most holy command" (De Sacrif. Abelis et Caini in Opp. p. 145). AuguLVALstine, after expressly referring the origin of sacrifice to the divine command, more distinctly evolves his meaning by saying, "The prophetic immolation of blood, testifying, from the very commencement of the human race, the future passion of the Mediator, is a matter of deep antiquity; inasmuch as Abel is found in Holy Scripture to have been the first who offered up this prophetic immolation" (Cont. Faust. Manich. in Opp. 6, 145). Next we come to Athanasius, who, speaking of the consent of the Old Testament to the fundamental doctrines of the New, says: "What Moses taught, these things his predecessor Abraham had preserved; and what Abraham had preserved, with those things Enoch and Noah were well acquainted; for they made a distinction between the clean and the unclean, and were acceptable to God. Thus, also, in like manner, Abel bore testimony; for he knew what he had learned from Adam, and Adam himself taught only what he had previously learned from the Lord" (Synod. Nicen. contra Hoer. Arian. decret. in Opp. 1, 403). Eusebius of Caesarea, in a passage too long for quotation, alleges that animal sacrifice was first of all practiced by the ancient lovers of God (the patriarchs), and that not by accident, but through a certain divine contrivance, under which, as taught by the Divine Spirit, it became their duty thus to shadow forth the great and venerable victim, really acceptable to God, which was, in time then future, destined to be offered in behalf of the whole human race (Demonst. Evang. 1, 8, 24, 25).\par Among the considerations urged in support of the opinion that sacrifice must have originated in a divine command, it has been suggested as exceedingly doubtful whether, independently of such a command, and as distinguished from vegetable oblations, animal sacrifice, which involves the practice of slaughtering and burning an innocent victim, could ever, under any aspect, have been adopted as a rite likely to gain the favor of God. Our own course of scriptural education prevents us, perhaps, fLVALrom being competent judges on this point; but we have means of judging how so singular a rite must strike the minds of thinking men not in the same degree prepossessed by early associations. The ancient Greek masters of thought not unfrequently expressed their astonishment how and upon what rational principles so strange an institution as that of animal sacrifice could ever have originated; for as to the notion of its being pleasing to the Deity, such a thing struck them as a manifest impossibility (Iamblic. De Vit. Pythag. p. 106-118; Porphyr. De Abstin. p. 96; Theophrast. et Porphyr. ap. Euseb. Proep. Evang. p. 90, 91). Those who do not believe that sacrifices were of divine institution must dispose of this difficulty by alleging that, when men had come to slay animals for their own food, they might think it right to slay them to satisfy their gods; and, in fact, Grotius, who held the human origin of sacrifices, and yet believed that animal food was not used before the Deluge, is reduced to the expedient of contending that Abel's offering was not an animal sacrifice, but only the produce-the milk and wool-of his best sheep. This, however, shows that he believed animal sacrifice to have been impossible before the Deluge without the sanction of a divine command, the existence of which he discredited.\par A strong moral argument in favor of the divine institution of sacrifice, somewhat feebly put by Hallet (Comment. on Heb. 11:4, cited by Magee, On the Atonement), has been reproduced with increased force by Faber (Prim. Sacrifice, p. 183). It amounts to this:\par (1.) Sacrifice, when uncommanded by God, is a mere act of gratuitous superstition; whence, on the principle of Paul's reprobation of what he denominates will-worship, it is neither acceptable nor pleasing to God.\par (2.) But sacrifice during the patriarchal ages was accepted by God, and was plainly honored with his approbation.\par (3.) Therefore, sacrifice during the patriarchal ages could not have been an act of superstition uncommandedLVAL by God.\par (4.) If, then, such was the character of primitive sacrifice \emdash that is to say, if primitive sacrifice was not a mere act of gratuitous superstition uncommanded by God \emdash it must, in that case, indubitably have been a divine, and not a human, institution. If it be held that any of the ancient sacrifices were expiatory, or piacular, the argument for their divine origin is strengthened. as it is hard to conceive the combination of ideas under which the notion of expiatory sacrifice could be worked out by the human mind. This difficulty is so great that the ablest advocates of the human origin of primitive animal sacrifice feel bound also to deny that such sacrifices as then existed were piacular. It is strongly insisted that the doctrine of an atonement by animal sacrifice cannot be deduced from the light of nature or from the principles of reason. If, therefore, the idea existed, it must either have arisen in the fertile soil of a guessing superstition, or have been divinely appointed. Now, we know that God cannot approve of unwarranted and presumptuous superstition; if, therefore, he can be shown to have received with approbation a species of sacrifice undiscoverable by the light of nature, or from the principles of reason, it follows that it must have been of his own institution.\par The question of the existence of expiatory sacrifice before the law, however, is more difficult, and is denied by Outram, Ernesti, Doderlin, Davison, and many others, who believe that it was revealed under the law, as well as by those who doubt its existence under the Mosaical dispensation. The arguments already stated in favor of the divine institution of primitive sacrifice go equally to support the existence of piacular sacrifice, the idea of which seems more urgently to have required a divine intimation. Besides, expiatory sacrifice is found to have existed among all nations in conjunction with eucharistic and impetratory sacrifices; and it lies at the root of the principle on which human sLVALacrifices were offered among the ancient nations. The expiatory view of sacrifice is frequently produced by heathen writers: "Take heart for heart, fibre for fibre. This life we give you in the place of a better" (Ovid, Fasti, 6, 161). This being the case, it is difficult to believe but that the idea was derived, along with animal sacrifice itself, from the practice of Noah, and preserved among his various descendants. This argument, if valid, would show the primitive origin of piacular sacrifice. Now there can be no doubt that the idea of sacrifice which Noah transmitted to the postdiluvian world was the same that he had derived from his pious ancestors, and the same that was evinced by the sacrifice of Abel, to which we are, by the course of the argument, again brought back. Now if that sacrifice was expiatory, we have reason to conclude that it was divinely commanded; and the supposition that it was both expiatory and divinely commanded makes the whole history far more clear and consistent than any other which has been or can be offered. It amounts, then, to this-that Cain, by bringing a eucharistic offering, when his brother brought one which was expiatory, denied virtually that his sins deserved death, or that he needed the blood of atonement. Some go further, and allege that in the text itself God actually commanded Cain to offer a piacular sacrifice. (See this question discussed below.)\par 2. On the other hand, the great difficulty in the theory which refers it to a distinct command of God is the total silence of Holy Scripture-a silence the more remarkable when contrasted with the distinct reference made in Gen 2 to the origin of the Sabbath. Sacrifice when first mentioned, in the case of Cain and Abel, is referred to as a thing of course; it is said to have been brought by men; there is no hint of any command given by God. This consideration, the strength of which no ingenuity has been able to impair, although it does not actually disprove the formal revelation of sacrifice, yet at least foLVALrbids the assertion of it, as of a positive and important doctrine. See, for example (as in Faber's Origin of Sacrifice), the elaborate reasoning on the translation of <START HEBREW>taF*j^<END HEBREW>\par in Gen 4:7. Even supposing the version a "sin offering coucheth at the door" to be correct, on the ground of general usage of the word, of the curious version of the Sept., and of the remarkable grammatical construction of the masculine participle with the feminine noun (as referring to the fact that the sin offering was actually a male), still it does not settle the matter. The Lord even then speaks of sacrifice as existing, and as known to exist: he does not institute it. The supposition that the "skins of beasts" in Gen 3:21 were skins of animals sacrificed by God's command is a pure assumption. The argument on Heb 11:4, that faith can rest only on a distinct divine command as to the special occasion of its exercise, is contradicted by the general definition of it given in ver. 1. (See below.)\par Nor is the fact of the mysterious and supernatural character of the doctrine of atonement, with which the sacrifices of the O.T. are expressly connected, any conclusive argument on this side of the question. All allow that the eucharistic and deprecatory ideas of sacrifice are perfectly natural to man. The higher view of its expiatory character, dependent, as it is, entirely on its typical nature, appears but gradually in Scripture. It is veiled under other ideas in the case of the patriarchal sacrifices. It is first distinctly mentioned in the Law (Lev 17:11, etc.); but even then the theory of the sin offering, and of the classes of sins to which it referred, is allowed to be obscure and difficult; it is only in the N.T. (especially in the Epistle to the Hebrews) that its nature is clearly unfolded. It is as likely that it pleased God gradually to superadd the higher idea to an institution, derived by man from the lower ideas (which must eventually find their justification in the higher), as that he LVALoriginally commanded the institution when the time for the revelation of its full meaning was not yet come. The rainbow was just as truly the symbol of God's new promise in Gen 9:13-17, whether it had or had not existed as a natural phenomenon before the flood. What God sets his seal to he makes a part of his revelation, whatever its origin may be. It is to be noticed (see Warburton, Div. Leg. 9, c. 2) that, except in Gen 15:9, the method of patriarchal sacrifice is left free, without any direction on the part of God, while in all the Mosaic ritual the limitation and regulation of sacrifice, as to time, place, and material, is a most prominent feature, on which much of its distinction from heathen sacrifice depended. The inference is at least probable that when God sanctioned formally a natural rite, then, and not till then, did he define its method.\par See on the question, in addition to the above treatises, Sykes, Essay on the Nature, Origin, and Design of Sacrifices; Taylor, Scripture Doctrine of the Atonement (1758); Ritchie, Criticisms upon Modern Notions of Sacrifices (1761); Magee, Discourses on Atonement and Sacrifices. See ATONEMENT.\par III. Biblical History of Sacrifice. \emdash \par 1. Ante-Mosaic Instances. \emdash In examining the various sacrifices recorded in Scripture before the establishment of the law, we find that the words specially denoting expiatory sacrifice (<START HEBREW>taF*j^<END HEBREW>\par and <START HEBREW><v*a*<END HEBREW>\par ) are not applied to them. This fact does not at all show that they were not actually expiatory, nor even that the offerers had not that idea of expiation which must have been vaguely felt in all sacrifices; but it justifies the inference that this idea was not then the prominent one in the doctrine of sacrifice.\par The sacrifice of Cain and Abel is called minchah. although in the case of the latter it was a bloody sacrifice. (So in Heb 11:4 the word <START GREEK>\par qusi/a<END GREEK>\par is explained by the <START GREEK>\par toi=$LVAL dw/roi$<END GREEK>\par below.) In the case of both it would appear to have been eucharistic, and the distinction between the offerers to have lain in their "faith" (Heb 11:4). Whether that faith of Abel referred to the promise of the Redeemer and was connected with any idea of the typical meaning of sacrifice, or whether it was a simple and humble faith in the unseen God, as the giver and promiser of all good, we are not authorized by Scripture to decide. See CAIN.\par The sacrifice of Noah after the flood (Gen 8:20) is called burned offering (olah). This sacrifice is expressly connected with the institution of the covenant which follows in 9:8-17. The same ratification of a covenant is seen in the burned offering of Abraham, especially enjoined and defined by God in Gen 15:9; and is probably to be traced in the "building of altars" by Abraham on entering Canaan at Bethel (Gen 12:7,8) and Mamre (13:18), by Isaac at Beersheba (26:25), and by Jacob at Shechem (33:20), and in Jacob's setting-up and anointing of the pillar at Bethel (25:18; 35:14). The sacrifice (zebach) of Jacob at Mizpah also marks a covenant with Laban, to which God is called to be a witness and a party. In all these, therefore, the prominent idea seems to have been what is called the federative, the recognition of a bond between the sacrificer and God, and the dedication of himself, as represented by the victim, to the service of the Lord. See NOAH. The sacrifice of Isaac (Gen 22:1-13) stands by itself as the sole instance in which the idea of human sacrifice was even for a moment, and as a trial, countenanced by God. Yet in its principle it appears to have been of the same nature as before: the voluntary surrender of an only son on Abraham's part, and the willing dedication of himself on Isaac's, are in the foreground; the expiatory idea, if recognised at all, holds certainly a secondary position. See ISAAC.\par In the burned offerings of Job for his children (Job 1:5) and for his three friends (Job 42:8), we, for the first timeLVAL, find the expression of the desire of expiation for sin accompanied by repentance and prayer, and brought prominently forward. The same is the case in the words of Moses to Pharaoh as to the necessity of sacrifice in the wilderness (Ex 10:25), where sacrifice (zebach) is distinguished from burned offering. Here the main idea is at least deprecatory; the object is to appease the wrath and avert the vengeance of God.\par 2. The Sacrifices of the Mosaic Period. \emdash These are inaugurated by the offering of the Passover and the sacrifice of Ex 24. The Passover, indeed, is unique in its character, and seems to embrace the peculiarities of all the various divisions of sacrifice soon to be established. Its ceremonial, however, most nearly resembles that of the sin offering in the emphatic use of the blood, which (after the first celebration) was poured at the bottom of the altar (see Lev 4:7), and in the care taken that none of the flesh should remain till the morning (see Ex 12:10; 34:25). It was unlike it in that the flesh was to be eaten by all (not burned, or eaten by the priests alone), in token of their entering into covenant with God, and eating "at his table," as in the case of a peace offering. Its peculiar position as a historical memorial, and its special reference to the future, naturally mark it out as incapable of being referred to any formal class of sacrifice; but it is clear that the idea of salvation from death by means of sacrifice is brought out in it with a distinctness before unknown. See PASSOVER.\par The sacrifice of Ex 24, offered as a solemn inauguration of the covenant of Sinai, has a similarly comprehensive character. It is called a "burned offering" and "peace offering" in ver. 5; but the solemn use of the blood (comp. Heb 9:18-22) distinctly marks the idea that expiatory sacrifice was needed for entering into covenant with God, the idea of which the sin and trespass offerings were afterwards the symbols.\par The law of Leviticus now unfolds distinctly the various forms oLVALf sacrifice:\par (a.)\tab the burned offering. Self dedicatory.\par (b.)\tab the meat offering (unbloody). Eucharstic.\par The peace offering (bloody).\par (c.)\tab the sin offering. \par The trespass offering. Expiatory.\par (d.)\tab the incense offered after sacrifice in the Holy Place, and (on the Day of Atonement) in the Holy of Holies, the symbol of the intercession of the priest (as a type of the Great High priest), accompanying and making efficacious the prayer of the people.\par In the consecration of Aaron and his sons (Lev 8) we find these offered in what became ever afterwards the appointed order: first came the sin offering, to prepare access to God; next the burned offering, to mark their dedication to his service; and, thirdly, the meat offering of thanksgiving. The same sacrifices, in the same order, with the addition of a peace offering (eaten, no doubt, by all the people), were offered a week after for all the congregation, and accepted visibly by the descent of fire upon the burned offering. Henceforth the sacrificial system was fixed in all its parts, until He should come whom it typified. It is to be noticed that the law of Leviticus takes the rite of sacrifice for granted (see Lev 1:2; 2:1, etc., "If a man bring an offering, ye shall," etc.), and is directed chiefly to guide and limit its exercise. In every case but that of the peace offering the nature of the victim was carefully prescribed, so as to preserve the ideas symbolized, but so as to avoid the notion (so inherent in heathen systems, and finding its logical result in human sacrifice) that the more costly the offering, the more surely must it meet with acceptance. At the same time, probably in order to impress this truth on the mind, and also to guard against corruption by heathenish ceremonial, and against the notion that sacrifice in itself, without obedience, could avail (see 1 Sam 15:22,23), the place of offering was expressly limited, first to the Tabernacle, afterwards to the Temple. (For instances of infringLVALement of this rule uncensored, see Judg 2:5; 6:26; 13:19; 1 Sam 11:15; 16:5; 2 Sam 6:13; 1 Kings 3:2,3. Most of these cases are special, some authorized by special command; but the law probably did not attain to its full strictness till the foundation of the Temple.) This ordinance also necessitated a periodical gathering as one nation before God, and so kept clearly before their minds their relation to him as their national King. Both limitations brought out the great truth that God himself provided the way by which man should approach him, and that the method of reconciliation was initiated by him, and not by them.\par In consequence of the peculiarity of the law, it has been argued (as by Outram, Warburton, etc.) that the whole system of sacrifice was only a condescension to the weakness of the people, borrowed, more or less, from the heathen nations, especially from Egypt, in order to guard against worse superstition and positive idolatry. The argument is mainly based (see Warburton, Div. Leg. 4, \'a7 6:2) on Ezek 20:25, and similar references in the Old and New Test. to the nullity of all mere ceremonial. Taken as an explanation of the theory of sacrifice, it is weak and superficial; it labors under two fatal difficulties, the historical fact of the primeval existence of sacrifice, and its typical reference to the one atonement of Christ, which was foreordained from the very beginning, and had been already typified, as, for example, in the sacrifice of Isaac. But as giving a reason for the minuteness and elaboration of the Mosaic ceremonial so remarkably contrasted with the freedom of patriarchal sacrifice, and as furnishing an explanation of certain special rites, it may probably have some value. It certainly contains this truth: that the craving for visible tokens of God's presence, and visible rites of worship, from which idolatry proceeds, was provided for and turned into a safe channel by the whole ritual and typical system, of which sacrifice was the centre. The contact with the gigantic s LVAL* ystem of idolatry which prevailed in Egypt, and which had so deeply tainted the spirit of the Israelites, would doubtless render such provision then especially necessary. It was one part of the prophetic office to guard against its degradation into formalism, and to bring out its spiritual meaning with an ever-increasing clearness.\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 3. Post-Mosaic Sacrifices. \emdash It will not be necessary to pursue, il; detail, the history of Post-Mosaic sacrifice, for its main principles were now fixed forever. The most remarkable instances of sacrifice on a large scale are by Solomon at the consecration of the Temple (1 Kings 8:63), by Jehoiada after the death of Athaliah (2 Chron 23:18), and by Hezekiah at his great Passover and restoration of the Temple-worship (2 Chron 30:21-24). In each case the lavish use of victims was chiefly in the peace offerings, which were a sacred national feast to the people at the table of their Great King.\par The regular sacrifices in the Temple service were:\par (a.) Burned offerings. \par 1.\tab the daily burned offerings (Ex 29:38-42).\par 2.\tab the double burned offerings on the Sabbath (Num 28:9,10).\par 3.\tab the burned offerings at the great festivals (Num 28:11-29:39).\par (b.) Meat offerings. \par 1.\tab the daily meat offerings accompanying the daily burned offerings (flour, oil, and wine) (Ex 29:40,41).\par 2.\tab the shew bread (twelve loaves with frankincense), renewed every Sabbath (Lev 24:5-9).\par 3.\tab the special meat offerings at the Sabbath and the great festivals (Num 28:29).\par 4.\tab the first fruits, at the Passover (Lev 23:10-14), at Pentecost (23:17-20), both "wave offerings;" the first fruits of the dough and threshing floor at the harvest time (Num 15:20,21; Deut 26:1-11), called "heave offerings."\par (c.) Sin offerings. \par 1.\tab Sin offering (a kid) each new moon (Num 28:15).\par 2.\tab Sin offerings at the Passover, Pentecost, Feast of Trumpets, and Tabernacles (Num 28:22,30; 29:5,16,19,22,25,28,31,34,38).\par 3.\tab the offering of the two goats (the goat sacrificed, and the scapegoat) for the people, and of the bullock for the priest himself on the Great DLVALay of Atonement (Lev 16).\par (d.) Incense. \par 1.\tab the morning and evening incense (Ex 30:7,8).\par 2.\tab the incense on the Great Day of Atonement (Lev 16:12).\par Besides these public sacrifices, there were offerings of the people for themselves individually: at the purification of women (Lev 12); the presentation of the firstborn, and circumcision of all male children; the cleansing of the leprosy (ch. 14) or any uncleanness (ch. 15); at the fulfilment of Nazaritic and other vows (Num 6:1-21); on occasions of marriage and of burial, etc., besides the frequent offering of private sinofferings. These must have kept up a constant succession of sacrifices every day, and brought the rite home to every man's thought and to every occasion of human life. See SACRIFICIAL OFFERINGS.\par IV. Significance of the Levitical Sacrifices. \emdash In examining the doctrine of sacrifice, it is necessary to remember that, in its development, the order of idea is not necessarily the same as the order of time. By the order of sacrifice in its perfect form (as in Lev 8) it is clear that the sin offering occupies the most important place, the burned offering comes next, and the meatoffering, or peace offering, last of all. The second could only be offered after the first had been accepted; the third was only a subsidiary part of the second. Yet, in actual order of time, it has been seen that the patriarchal sacrifices partook much more of the nature of the peace offering and burned offering; and that, under the law, by which was "the knowledge of sin" (Rom 3:20), the sin offering was for the first time explicitly set forth. This is but natural, that the deepest ideas should be the last in order of development.\par It is also obvious that those who believe in the unity of the Old and New Tests., and the typical nature of the Mosaic covenant, must view the type in constant reference to the antitype, and be prepared, therefore, to find in the former vague and recondite meanings which are fixed and manifested by LVALthe latter. The sacrifices must be considered, not merely as they stand in the law, or even as they might have appeared to a pious Israelite, but as they were illustrated by the prophets, and perfectly interpreted in the N.T. (e.g. in the Epistle to the Hebrews). It follows from this that, as belonging to a system which was to embrace all mankind in its influence, they should be also compared and contrasted with the sacrifices and worship of God in other nations, and the ideas which in them were dimly and confusedly expressed.\par 1. Contrast with Heathenism. \emdash It is needless to dwell on the universality of heathen sacrifices (see Magee, Dis. on Sacrifice, vol. 1, dis. 5, and Ernst von Lasaulx, Treatise on Greek and Roman Sacrifice, quoted in notes 23, 26 to Thomson's Bampton Lectures, 1853), and it is difficult to reduce to any single theory the various ideas involved therein. It is clear that the sacrifice was often looked upon as a gift or tribute to the gods; an idea which, for example, runs through all Greek literature, from the simple conception in Homer to the caricatures of Aristophanes or Lucian, against the perversion of which Paul protested at Athens, when he declared that God needed nothing at human hands (Acts 17:25). It is also clear that sacrifices were used as prayers to obtain benefits or to avert wrath, and that this idea was corrupted into the superstition, denounced by heathen satirists as well as by Hebrew prophets, that by them the gods' favor could be purchased for the wicked, or their "envy" be averted from the prosperous. (On the other hand, that they were regarded as thank offerings, and the feasting on their flesh as a partaking of the "table of the gods" (comp. 1 Cor 10:20,21), is equally certain. Nor was the higher idea of sacrifice as a representation of the self devotion of the offerer, body and soul, to the god, wholly lost, although generally obscured by the grosser and more obvious conceptions of the rite. But, besides all these, there seems always to have beeLVALn latent the idea of propitiation; that is, the belief in a communion with the gods, natural to man, broken off in some way, and by sacrifice to be restored. The emphatic "shedding of the blood" as the essential part of the sacrifice, while the flesh was often eaten by the priests or the sacrificer, is not capable of a full explanation by any of the ideas above referred to. Whether it represented the death of the sacrificer, or (as in cases of national offering of human victims, and of those self devoted for their country) an atoning death for him; still, in either case, it contained the idea that "without shedding of blood is no renission," and so had a vague and distorted glimpse of the great central truth of revelation. Such an idea may be, as has been argued, "unnatural," in that it could not be explained by natural reason; but it certainly was not unnatural if frequency of existence and accordance with a deep natural instinct be allowed to preclude that epithet.\par Now, the essential difference between these heathen views of sacrifice and the scriptural doctrine of the O.T. is not to be found in its denial of any of these ideas. The very names used in it for sacrifice, as is seen above, involve the conception of the rite as a gift, a form of worship, a thank offering, a self devotion, and an atonement. In fact, it brings out, clearly and distinctly, the ideas which, in heathenism, were uncertain, vague, and perverted. But the essential points of distinction are two:\par (1.) Whereas the heathen conceived of their gods as alienated in jealousy or anger, to be sought after, and to be appeased by the unaided action of man, Scripture represents God himself as approaching man, as pointing out and sanctioning the way by which the broken covenant should be restored. This was impressed on the Israelites at every step by the minute directions of the law as to time, place, victim, and ceremonial, and by its utterly discountenancing the "will worship" which in heathenism found full scope, and rioted in tLVALhe invention of costly or monstrous sacrifices. It is especially to be noted that this particularity is increased as we approach nearer to the deep propitiatory idea; for whereas the patriarchal sacrifices generally seem to have been undefined by God, and, even under the law, the nature of the peace offerings, and, to some extent, the burned offerings, was determined by the sacrificer only, yet the solemn sacrifice of Abraham in the inauguration of his covenant was prescribed to him, and the sin offerings under the law were most accurately and minutely determined (see. for example, the whole ceremonial of Lev 16). It is needless to remark how this essential difference purifies all the ideas above noticed from the corruptions which made them odious or contemptible, and sets on its true basis the relation between God and fallen man.\par (2.) The second mark of distinction is closely connected with this, inasmuch as it shows sacrifice to be a scheme proceeding from God, and, in his foreknowledge, connected with the one central fact of all human history. It is to be found in the typical character of all Jewish sacrifices, on which, as the Epistle to the Hebrews argues, all their efficacy depended. It must be remembered that, like other ordinances of the law, they had a twofold effect, depending on the special position of an Israelite as a member of the natural theocracy, and on his general position as a man in relation with God. On the one hand, for example, the sin offering was en atonement to the national law for moral offenses of negligence, which in "presumptuous" \emdash i.e. deliberate and wilful \emdash crime was rejected (see Num 15:27-31; and comp. Heb 10:26,27). On the other hand, it had, as the prophetic writings show us, a distinct spiritual significance as a means of expressing repentance and receiving forgiveness, which could have belonged to it only as a type of the great atonement. How far that typical meaning was recognised at different periods and by different persons, it is useless tLVALo speculate; but it would be impossible to doubt, even if we had no testimony on the subject, that, in the face of the high spiritual watching of the law and the prophets, a pious Israelite must have felt the nullity of material sacrifice in itself, and so believed it to be availing only as an ordinance of God, shadowing out some great spiritual truth or action of his. Nor is it unlikely that, with more or less distinctness, he connected the evolution of this, as of other truths, with the coming of the promised Messiah. But, however this be, we know that, in God's purpose, the whole system was typical; that all its spiritual efficacy depended on the true sacrifice which it represented, and could be received only on condition of faith; and that, therefore, it passed away when the Antitype had come.\par 2. The nature and meaning of the various kinds of sacrifice are partly gathered from the form of their institution and ceremonial, partly from the teaching of the prophets, and partly from the N.T., especially the Epistle to the Hebrews.\par (1.) Old-Testament Relations. \emdash Here all had relation, under different aspects, to a covenant between God and man.\par (a.) The sin offering represented that covenant as broken by man, and as knit together again, by God's appointment, through the "shedding of blood." Its characteristic ceremony was the sprinkling of the blood before the veil of the sanctuary, the putting some of it on the horns of the altar of incense, and the pouring out of all the rest at the foot of the altar of burned offering. The flesh was in no case touched by the offerer; either it was consumed by fire without the camp, or it was eaten by the priest alone in the holy place, and everything that touched it was holy (<START HEBREW>vodq*<END HEBREW>\par ). This latter point marked the distinction from the peace offering, and showed that the sacrificer had been rendered unworthy of communion with God. The shedding of the blood, the symbol of life, signified that the death of the offendeLVALr was deserved for sin, but that the death of the victim was accepted for his death by the ordinance of God's mercy. This is seen most clearly in the ceremonial of the Day of Atonement, when, after the sacrifice of the one goat, the high priest's hand was laid on the head of the scapegoat \emdash which was the other part of the sin offering \emdash with confession of the sins of the people, that it might visibly bear them away, and so bring out explicitly what in other sin offerings was but implied. Accordingly, we find (see quotation from the Mishna in Outram, De Sacr. 1, ch. 15, \'a7 10) that in all cases it was the custom for the offerer to lay his hand on the head of the sin offering, to confess, generally or specially, his sins, and to say, "Let this be my expiation." Beyond all doubt, the sin offering distinctly witnessed that sin existed in man, that the "wages of that sin was death," and that God had provided an atonement by the vicarious suffering of an appointed victim. The reference of the Baptist to a "Lamb of God who taketh away the sins of the world" was one understood and hailed at once by a "true Israelite." See SIN OFFERING.\par (b.) The ceremonial and meaning of the burned offering were very different. The idea of expiation seems not to have been absent from it, for the blood was sprinkled round about the altar of sacrifice; and, before the Levitical ordinance of the sin offering to precede it, this idea may have been even prominent. But in the system of Leviticus, it is evidently only secondary. The main idea is the offering of the whole victim (to God, representing (as the laying of the hand on its head shows) the devotion of the sacrificer, body and soul, to him. The death of the victim was (so to speak), an incidental feature, to signify the completeness of the devotion; and it is to be noticed that, in all solemn sacrifices. no burned offering could be made until a previous sin offering had brought the sacrificer again into covenant with God. The main idea of this sacrifice mLVAL ust have been representative, not vicarious; and the best comment upon it is the exhortation, in Rom 12:1, "to present our bodies a living sacrifice, holy and acceptable to God."\par (c.) The meat offerings \emdash the peace or thank offering, the first fruits, etc. \emdash were simply offerings to God of his own best gifts, as a sign of thankful homage, and as a means of maintaining his service and his servants. Whether they were regular or voluntary, individual or national, independent or subsidiary to other offerings, this was still the leading idea. The meat offering, of flour, oil, and wine, seasoned with salt and hallowed by frankincense, was usually an appendage to the devotion implied in the burned offering; and the peace offerings for the people held the same place in Aaron's first sacrifice (Lev 9:22), and in all others of special solemnity. The characteristic ceremony in the peace offering was the eating of the flesh by the sacrificer (after the fat had been burned before the Lord, and the breast and shoulder given to the priests). It betokened the enjoyment of communion with God at "the table of the Lord," in the gifts which his mercy had bestowed, of which a choice portion was offered to him, to his servants, and to his poor (see Deut 14:28,29). To this view of sacrifice allusion is made by Paul in Phil 4:18; Heb 13:15,16). It follows naturally from the other two. See MEAT OFFERING.\par It is clear, from this, that the idea of sacrifice is a complex idea, involving the propitiatory, the dedicatory, and the eucharistic elements. Any one of these, taken by itself, would lead to error and superstition. The propitiatory alone would tend to the idea of atonement by sacrifice for sin, as being effectual without any condition of repentance and faith; the self-dedicatory, taken alone, ignores the barrier of sin between man and God, and undermines the whole idea of atonement; the eucharistic, alone, leads to the notion that mere gifts can satisfy God's service, and is easily perverted into theLVAL  heathenish attempt to "bribe" God by vows and offerings. All three, probably, were more or less implied in each sacrifice, each element predominating in its turn: all must be kept in mind in considering the historical influence, the spiritual meaning, and the typical value of sacrifice.\par Now, the Israelites, while they seem always to have retained the ideas of propitiation and of eucharistic offering, even when they perverted these by half-heathenish superstition, constantly ignored the self dedication which is the link between the two, and which the regular burned offering should have impressed upon them as their daily thought and duty. It is, therefore, to this point that the teaching of the prophets is mainly directed; its key-note is contained in the words of Samuel \emdash "Behold, to obey is better than sacrifice, and to hearken than the fat of rams" (1 Sam 15:22). So Isaiah declares (as in Isa 50:10-20) that "the Lord delights not in the blood of bullocks, or lambs, or goats;" that to those who "cease to do evil and learn to do well.... though their sins be as scarlet, they shall be white as snow." Jeremiah reminds them (Jer 7:22,23) that the Lord did not "command burned offerings or sacrifices" under Moses, but said, "Obey my voice, and I will be your God." Ezekiel is full of indignant protests (see Ezek 20:39-44) against the pollution of God's name by offerings of those whose hearts were with their idols. Hosea sets forth God's requirements (Hos 6:6) in words which our Lord himself sanctioned: "I desired mercy and not sacrifice, and the knowledge of God more than burned offerings." Amos (Amos 5:21-27) puts it even more strongly, that God "hates" their sacrifices, unless "judgment run down like water, and righteousness like a mighty stream." And Micah (Mic 6:6-8) answers the question which lies at the root of sacrifice \emdash "Wherewith shall I come before the Lord?" by the words, "What doth the Lord require of thee, but to do justly, and love mercy, and walk humbly with thy God?" All LVAL these passages, and many others, are directed to one object \emdash not to discourage sacrifice, but to purify and spiritualize the feelings of the offerers.\par The same truth, here enunciated from without, is recognised from within by the Psalmist. Thus he says, in Ps 40:8-11, "Sacrifice and meat offering, burned offering and sin offering, thou hast not required;" and contrasts with them the homage of the heart \emdash "Mine ears hast thou bored," and the active service of life \emdash "Lo! I come to do thy will, O God." In Ps 1:13, 14, sacrifice is contrasted with prayer and adoration (comp. Ps 141:2): "Thinkest thou that I will eat bulls' flesh, and drink the blood of goats? Offer unto God thanksgiving; and pay thy vows to the Most High: and call upon me in the day of trouble." In Ps 51:16,17, it is similarly contrasted with true repentance of the heart: "The sacrifice of God is a troubled spirit, a broken and a contrite heart." Yet here also the next verse shows that sacrifice was not superseded, but purified: "Then shalt thou be pleased with burned offerings and oblations; then shall they offer young bullocks upon thine altar." These passages are correlative to the others, expressing the feelings, which those others in God's name require. It is not to be argued from them that this idea of selfdedication is the main one of sacrifice. The idea of propitiation lies below it, taken for granted by the prophets as by the whole people, but still enveloped in mystery until the Antitype should come to make all clear. For the evolution of this doctrine we must look to the N.T.; the preparation for it by the prophets was (so to speak) negative, the pointing out the nullity of all other propitiations in themselves, and then leaving the warnings of the conscience and the cravings of the heart to fix men's hearts on the better atonement to come.\par (2.) New-Testament Explanation. \emdash Without entering directly on the great subject of the atonement (which would be foreign to the scope of this articleLVAL ), it will be sufficient to refer to the connection established in the N.T. between it and the sacrifices of the Mosaic system. To do this, we need do little more than analyze the Epistle to the Hebrews, which contains the key of the whole sacrificial doctrine.\par (a.) In the first place, it follows the prophetic books by stating, in the most emphatic terms, the intrinsic nullity of all mere material sacrifices. The "gifts and sacrifices" of the first tabernacle could "never make the sacrificers perfect in conscience" (<START GREEK>\par kata\\ sunei/dhsin<END GREEK>\par ); they were but "carnal ordinances, imposed on them till the time of reformation" (<START GREEK>\par diorqw/sew$<END GREEK>\par ) (Heb 9:9,10). The very fact of their constant repetition is said to prove this imperfection, which depends on the fundamental principle "that it is impossible that the blood of bulls and goats should take away sin" (Heb 10:4). But it does not lead us to infer that they actually had no spiritual efficacy if offered in repentance and faith. On the contrary, the object of the whole epistle is to show their typical and probationary character, and to assert that in virtue of it alone they had a spiritual meaning. Our Lord is declared (see 1 Peter 1:20) "to have been foreordained" as a sacrifice "before the foundation of the world;" or (as it is more strikingly expressed in Rev 13:8) "slain from the foundation of the world." The material sacrifices represented this great atonement as already made and accepted in God's foreknowledge; and to those who grasped the ideas of sin, pardon, and self dedication symbolized in them they were means of entering into the blessings which the one true sacrifice alone procured. Otherwise the whole sacrificial system could have been only a superstition and a snare. The sins provided for by the sin offering were certainly in some cases moral. The whole of the Mosaic description of sacrifices clearly implies some real spiritual benefit to be derived from them, besides the tempLVAL oral privileges belonging to the national theocracy. Just as Paul argues (Gal 3:15-29) that the promise and covenant to Abraham were of primary, the law only of secondary importance \emdash so that men had under the law more than they had by the law \emdash so it must be said of the Levitical sacrifices. They could convey nothing in themselves; yet, as types, they might, if accepted by a true, though necessarily imperfect faith, be means of conveying in some degree the blessings of the Antitype. See TYPE.\par (b.) This typical character of all sacrifice being thus set forth, the next point dwelt upon is the union in our Lord's person of the priest, the offerer, and the sacrifice. See PRIEST. The imperfection of all sacrifices, which made them, in themselves, liable to superstition and even inexplicable, lies in this: that, on the one hand, the victim seems arbitrarily chosen to be the substitute for, or the representative of, the sacrificer; and that, on the other, if there be a barrier of sin between man and God, he has no right of approach, or security that his sacrifice will be accepted; that there needs, therefore, to be a mediator, i.e. (according to the definition of Heb 5:1-4), a true priest, who shall, as being one with man, offer the sacrifice, and accept it, as being one with God. It is shown that this imperfection, which necessarily existed in all types, without which indeed they would have been substitutes, not preparations for the antitype, was altogether done away in him: that in the first place he, as the representative of the whole human race, offered no arbitrarily chosen victim, but the willing sacrifice of his own blood; that in the second place he was ordained by God, by a solemn oath, to be a highpriest forever, "after the order of Melchisedek," one "in all points tempted like as we are, yet without sin," united to our human nature, susceptible to its infirmities and trials, yet, at the same time, the true Son of God, exalted far above all created things, and ever living to makLVALe intercession in heaven, now that his sacrifice is over; and that, in the last place, the barrier between man and God is by his mediation done away forever, and the most holy place once for all opened to man. All the points in the doctrine of sacrifice which had before been unintelligible were thus made clear.\par (c.) This being the case, it next follows that all the various kinds of sacrifices were, each in its measure, representatives and types of the various aspects of the atonement. It is clear that the atonement in this epistle, as in the N.T. generally, is viewed in a twofold light.\par (1.) On the one hand, it is set forth distinctly as a vicarious sacrifice which was rendered necessary by the sin of man, and in which the Lord "bare the sins of many." It is its essential characteristic that in it he stands absolutely alone, offering his sacrifice without any reference to the faith or the conversion of menoffering it, indeed, for those who "were still sinners" and at enmity with God. Moreover, it is called a "propitiatiols" (<START GREEK>\par i(lasmo/$<END GREEK>\par or <START GREEK>\par i(lasth/rion<END GREEK>\par ), Rom 3:24; 1 John 2:2; a "ransom" (<START GREEK>\par a)polu/trwsi$<END GREEK>\par ), Rom 3:25; 1 Cor 1:30, etc.; which, if words mean anything, must imply that it makes a change in the relation between God and man, from separation to union, from wrath to love, and a change in man's state from bondage to freedom. In it, then, he stands out alone as the mediator between God and man; and his sacrifice is offered once for all, never to be imitated or repeated.\par Now, this view of the atonement is set forth in the Epistle to the Hebrews as typified by the sin offering, especially by that particular sin offering with which the high priest entered the most holy place on the great day of atonement (Heb 9:7-12), and by that which hallowed the inauguration of the Mosaic covenant and cleansed the vessels of its ministration (Heb 9:13-23). In the same way Christ is called "our PasLVALsover, sacrificed for us" (1 Cor 5:7); and is said, in even more startling language, to have been "made sin for us," though he "knew no sin" (2 Cor 5:21). This typical relation is pursued even into details, and our Lord's suffering without the city is compared to the burning of the public or priestly sin offerings without the camp (Heb 13:10-13). The altar of sacrifice (<START GREEK>\par qusiasth/rion<END GREEK>\par ) is said to have its antitype in his passion (13:10). All the expiatory and propitiatory sacrifices of the law are now for the first time brought into full light. Although the principle of vicarious sacrifice still remains, and must remain, a mystery, yet the fact of its existence in him is illustrated by a thousand types. As the sin offering, though not the earliest, is the most fundamental of all sacrifices, so the aspect of the atonement which it symbolizes is the one on which all others rest.\par (2.) On the other hand, the sacrifice of Christ is set forth to us as the completion of that perfect obedience to the will of the Father which is the natural duty of sinless man, in which he is the representative of all men, and in which he calls upon us, when reconciled to God, to "take up the cross and follow him." "In the days of his flesh he offered up prayers and supplications... and was heard, in that he feared; though he were a Son, yet learned he obedience by the things which he suffered: and being made perfect" (by that suffering; see 2:10), "he became the author of salvation to all them that obey him" (5:7,8,9). In this view his death is not the principal object; we dwell rather on his lowly incarnation, and his life of humility, temptation, and suffering, to which that death was but a fitting close. In the passage above referred to the allusion is not to the cross of Calvary, but to the agony in Gethsemane, which bowed his human will to the will of his Father. The main idea of this view of the atonement is representative rather than vicarious. In the first view the "second Adam"LVAL undid by his atoning blood the work of evil which the first Adam did; in the second he, by his perfect obedience, did that which the first Adam left undone, and, by his grace making us like himself, calls upon us to follow him in the same path. This latter view is typified by the burned offering; in respect of which the N.T. merely quotes and enforces the language already cited from the O.T., and especially (see Heb 10:6-9) the words of Ps 40:6, etc., which contrast with material sacrifice the "doing the will of God." It is one which cannot be dwelt upon at all without a previous implication of the other: as both were embraced in one act, so are they inseparably connected in idea. Thus it is put forth in Rom 12:1, where the "mercies of God" (i.e. the free salvation, through the sin offering of Christ's blood, dwelt upon in all the preceding part of the epistle) are made the ground for calling on us "to present our bodies, a living sacrifice, holy and acceptable to God, "inasmuch as we are all (see 5:5) one with Christ, and members of his body. In this sense it is that we are said to be "crucified with Christ" (Gal 2:20; Rom 6:6); to lave "the sufferings of Christ abound in us" (2 Cor 1:5); even to "fill up that which is behind" (<START GREEK>\par ta\\ u(sterh/mata<END GREEK>\par ) thereof (Col 1:24); and to "be offered" (<START GREEK>\par spe/ndesqai<END GREEK>\par ) "upon the sacrifice of the faith" of others (Phil 2:17; comp. 2 Tim 4:6; 1 John 3:16). As without the sin offering of the cross this, our burned offering, would be impossible, so also without the burned offering the sin offering will to us be unavailing.\par (d.) With these views of our Lord's sacrifice on earth, as typified in the Levitical sacrifices on the outer altar, is also to be connected the offering of his intercession for us in heaven, which was represented by the incense. In the Epistle to the Hebrews, this part of his priestly office is dwelt upon with particular reference to the offering of incense in the most holy placLVALe by the highpriest on the great day of atonement (Heb 9:24-28, comp. 4:14-16; 6:19,20; 7:25). It implies that the sin offering has been made once for all to rend asunder the veil (of sin) between man and God, and that the continual burned offering is now accepted by him for the sake of the great interceding High priest. That intercession is the strength of our prayers, and "with the smoke of its incense" they rise up to heaven (Rev 8:4). See INCENSE.\par (e.) The typical sense of the meat offering or peaceoffering is less connected with the sacrifice of Christ himself than with those sacrifices of praise, thanksgiving, charity, and devotion which we, as Christians, offer to God, and "with which he is well pleased" (Heb 13:15,16) as with "an odor of sweet smell, a sacrifice acceptable to God" (Phil 4:18). They betoken that through the peace won by the sin offering we have already been enabled to dedicate ourselves to God, and they are, as it were, the ornaments and accessories of that self dedication. See PEACE OFFERING.\par Such is a brief sketch of the doctrine of sacrifice. It is seen to have been deeply rooted in men's hearts, and to have been, from the beginning, accepted and sanctioned by God, and made by him one channel of his revelation. In virtue of that sanction it had a value, partly symbolical, partly actual, but in all respects derived from the one true sacrifice, of which it was the type. It involved the expiatory, the self dedicatory, and the eucharistic ideas, each gradually developed and explained, but all capable of full explanation only by the light reflected back from the antitype.\par Literature. \emdash This is very copious, as may be seen from the lists of works cited by Danz (Worterb. s.v. "Opfer"), Darling (Cyclop. Bibliog. [see Index]), and Malcolm (Theol. Index, s.v.), as also from the references in the following articles. See especially Kurtz, Der alttestam. Oefercultus (Mitau, 1862); transl. Sacrificial Worship of the Old Test. (Edinb. 1863).\par (from McClintock and LVALStrong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SACRIFICE, HUMAN\par Sacrifice, Human.\par The offering of human life, as the most precious thing on earth, came in process of time to be practiced in most countries of the world. All histories and traditions darken our idea of the earlier ages with human sacrifices. But the period when such prevailed was not the earliest in time, though probably the earliest in civilization. The practice was both a result and a token of barbarism more or less gross. In this, too, the dearest object was primitively selected. Human life is the most valuable thing known, and of this most precious possession the most precious portion is the life of a child. Children, therefore, were offered in fire to the false divinities, and in no part of the world with less regard to the claims of natural affection than in the land where, at a later period, the only true God had his peculiar worship and highest honors.\par Under these circumstances, it is a striking fact that the Hebrew religion, even in its most rudimental condition, should be free from the contamination of human sacrifices. The case of Isaac and that of Jephthah's daughter cannot impair the general truth that the offering of human beings is neither enjoined, allowed, nor practiced in the Biblical records. On the contrary, such an offering is strictly prohibited by Moses as adverse to the will of God and an abomination of the heathen. "Thou shalt not let any of thy seed pass through the fire to Moloch: defile not yourselves with any of these things" (Lev 18:21; see also 20:2; Deut 12:31; Ps 106:37; Isa 66:3; Jer 23:37). Yet in an age in which, like the present, all manner of novelties are broached, and, in some cases, the greater the paradox advanced with the more promptitude and maintained with the greater earnestness, these very clear positions have been withstooLVALd, and human sacrifices have been confidently charged on the Hebrew race. In the year 1842, Ghillany, professor at Nuremberg, published a book (Die Menschenopfer der alten Hebraer), the object of which was to prove that as the religion of the ancient Hebrews did not differ essentially from that of the Canaanites \emdash so that Moloch, who had been originally a god common to both, merely in the process of time was softened down and passed into Jehovah, thus becoming the national deity of the people of Israel \emdash so did their altars smoke with human blood, from the time of Abraham down to the fall of both kingdoms of Judah and Israel. In the same year appeared in Germany another work, by Daumer (Der Feuer- und Molochdienst der alten Hebraer), intended to prove that the worship of Moloch, involving his bloody rites, was the original, legal, and orthodox worship of the nation of Abraham, Moses, Samuel, and David. To these works a reply was put forth in 1843, by Lowengard (Jehovah, nicht Moloch, war der Gott der alten Hebraer), in which he defends the worship of Jehovah from the recent imputations, and strives, by distinguishing between the essential and the unessential, the durable and the temporary, to prepare the way for a reformation of modern Judaism.\par We do not think that it requires any deep research or profound learning to ascertain from the Biblical records themselves that the religion of the Bible is wholly free from the shocking abominations of human sacrifices, and we do not therefore hesitate to urge the fact on the attention of the ordinary reader as not least considerable among many proofs not only of the superior character, but of the divine origin, of the Hebrew worship. It was in Egypt where the mind of Moses, and of the generation with whom he had primarily to do, was chiefly formed, so far as heathen influences were concerned. Here offerings were very numerous. Sacrifices of meat offerings, libations, and incense were of very early date in the Egyptian temples. Oxen, wild goaLVALts, pigs, and particularly geese, were among the animal offerings; besides these, there were presented to the gods wine, oil, beer, milk, cakes, grain, ointment, flowers, fruits, vegetables. In these, and in the case of meat, peace, and sin offerings (as well as others), there exists a striking resemblance with similar Hebrew observances, which may be found indicated in detail in Wilkinson (Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, 5, 358 sq.; see also 2, 378), who, in agreement with Herodotus, maintains, in opposition to Diodorus, that the Egyptians were never accustomed to sacrifice human beings \emdash a decision which has a favorable aspect on our last position, namely, that the religion of the Israelites, even in its earliest days, was unprofaned by human blood. A remarkable instance of disagreement between the observances of the Egyptians and the Jews in regard to sacrifices is that while the Egyptians received the blood of the slaughtered animal into a vase or basin, to be applied in cookery, the eating of blood was most strictly forbidden to the Israelites (Deut 15:23).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SACRIFICIAL FESTIVAL\par Sacrificial Festival\par This was held with the pieces of the victims laid aside from sacrifices of a joyful nature (epuloe sacroe, dapes), not only in all ancient heathen nations (Saubert, De Sacrific. c. 26; Feith, Antiq. Hom. 1, 10, 7; Stuck, Antiq. Conviv. 1, 33; Lakemacher, Antiq. Groecor. Sacre, p. 384 sq.; Dougtai Annal. 1, 235; on the Romans, see, among others, Josephus, War, 7, 1, 3; comp. also Plato, Leg. 5, p. 738; Herod. 6:67), but also among the Israelites (Deut 12:6 sq.; 1 Sam 9:19; 16:3,5; 2 Sam 6:19). Only the thank offerings of individuals, however, among that people gave opportunity for these festivals, since of these alone certain rich portions were consumed on the altar (Lev 3:3 sq., 9 sq.; 14:15); the breast and the right shoulder belonged to the officiating priests (7:31 sq.), and all the rest of the flesh was restored to the offerer (Deut 27:7). This was to be eaten on the same or the following day (Lev 7:16), and in the company of all members of the household and of bidden guests (the Levites especially were often invited) (Deut 12:12). Other sacred meals were held at the times of festivals (16:11 sq.). Upon the tithe meal, See TITHE. Heathen sacrificial meals, which were held sometimes in the temples (1 Cor 8:10), sometimes in private houses, are mentioned (Num 25:2). The participation of an Israelite in these was accounted idolatry (25:3 sq.; Ps 106:28; Tob 1:12; 1 Cor 10:20 sq.; Rev 2:14); hence, too, the apostles forbade Christians to join them (Acts 15:29; 21:25), or at least warned against them on account of those who were weak in faith (1 Cor 8:1 sq.; 10:28 sq.). Such "meat offered to idols," however, was set forth on the table not only at the sacrificial meals (1 Cor 8:10; 10:27), but the poor or the avaricious used to preserve it for future usF LVALV e (Theophr. Char. 10) or sell it to traders (ibid. 23); hence it might easily happen that one who bought at the meat market received it (1 Cor 10:25). See FESTIVAL.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVAL{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SACRIFICIAL INSTRUMENTS\par Sacrificial Instruments In The Israelitish Sanctuary.\par For the use of the priests in offering sacrifices, especially those with blood, there were kept in the tabernacle (Ex 27:3; 38:3; Num 4:14) and in the Temple (1 Kings 7:40,45; 2 Kings 25:14 sq.; Jer 52:18 sq.) the following implements of brass:\par 1. <START HEBREW><yu!y*<END HEBREW>\par , yaim', shovels, perhaps to free the altar of burned offering from its ashes; to which the <START HEBREW>torys!<END HEBREW>\par , siroth', or pots, belonged, into which they were thrown.\par 2. <START HEBREW>toqr*z=m!<END HEBREW>\par , mizrakoth', basins, to take up the blood of the victims for sprinkling.\par 3. <START HEBREW>togl*z=m!<END HEBREW>\par , mizlagoth', forks, flesh-forks. \par 4. <START HEBREW>toTj=m^<END HEBREW>\par , machtoth', firepans, in which coals were taken up.\par The brazen <START HEBREW>torM=z^m=<END HEBREW>\par , mezammeroth' (Jer 52:18), may be considered as belonging here, and will then doubtless mean sacrificial knives, elsewhere called <START HEBREW>yp!l*j=m^<END HEBREW>\par , machlaphim'. See KNIFE. The golden vases or vessels mentioned in 1 Kings 7:50 are certainly different from those just mentioned (No. 2), and were intended for use in the holy place. See SACRIFICE; See TEMPLE.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SACRIFICIAL OFFERINGS\par Sacrificial Offering.\par \par There is no doubt that the origin of sacrifices is to be referred to the very earliest ages of humanity, where also the Mosaic history places it (Gen 4:3 sq.; 8:20; 22:2; 31:54; 46:1; comp. Hottinger, De Origine Sacrific. Patriarch. [Marb. 1706]). While men as yet made little distinction between the sensible and the supernatural, they sought to acquire or fix the favor of their gods, or to express their gratitude for their gifts, by thank offerings, usually of some kind of food, since they attributed to their gods the wants of men (Lev 21:6; 22:25; Num 28:2; comp. Pliny, 2, 5, p. 73 [ed. Hard.]; Homer, Iliad, 4, 48; Aristoph. Aves, 1516 sq.; comp. Pauly's Real-Encyklop. 4, 839 sq.). (On the meaning and kinds of offerings, see Melancthon, in the Apol. A. C. p. 253 sq. A contracted view is taken by Sykes, Ueber d. Natur, Absicht u. Urspr. d. Opfer [Halle, 1778]. There is a vain attempt to philosophize, by Rosenkranz, in the Hall. Encykl. vol. 3, \'a7 4, p. 74; comp. Baader, Ueber eine kunft. Theorie d. Opfers und Cultus [Munich, 1836]; Bahr, Symbol. 2, 288 sq.) The sensualism of an early age expressed itself, too, in supposing a god to be pleased with the odor of sacrifices (Lev 1:9,13; Num 15:7 sq.; Lucian, Icaromen. 27). The sacrifices were usually of such food as men themselves most enjoyed, and of the greatest excellence in their kind (1 Sam 15:15; Ps 66:15), and were either raw or prepared in such a way as to be most palatable. Hence doubtless the use of salt (q.v.). Perhaps the first offerings were productions of the vegetable kingdom (Plato, Leg. 6, 782), and then honey, milk, etc., animals not being offered until later (Theophr. in Porphyr. Abstinent. 2, 5, and 28:33; comp. Plato, Leg. 6, 782; Ovid, Fasti, 1, 337; Pausan. 8, 2, 1). For tLVALhe history informs us that man began with vegetable food, and afterwards to eat flesh (comp. Gen 1:29; 9:3; see Schickedanz, De Natura Sacrif V.T. ex Seculi Morib. repetend. [Francf. 1784], and in the Symbol. Duisb. 2, 2, 493 sq.), and perhaps the sacrifice of animals may have led to the burning of the sacrifices on altars. (See iin general Gedicke, Verm. Schriff. p. 229 sq.; Wolf, Verm. Schrift. u. Aufs. [Halle, 1802], p. 243 sq.; Saubert, De Sacrfic. Vet. Collectanea [Jen. 1659]; Meiner, Krit. Gesch. der Religion, 2, 1 sq.; Baur, Symbol. u. Mythol. 2, 2, 284 sq.) It is commonly supposed that the first offerings were of immediate divine appointment (Deyling, Observat. 2, 53 sq.), but this is not affirmed in the Mosaic history (comp. Wolf, Hominies Mose Vetustiores Sponte Sacrafecisse, etc. [Lips. 1782]), and is rejected by some as anthropopathism. The views of those who seek definite dogmatic relations in the first sacrifices, as Tholuck (2 te Beil. zum Br. a.d. Hebr. p. 69), do not belong to historical criticism, but to dogmatic"theology (see also the Zeitschr. f. wissensch. Theol. 1863, 3).\par On the ritual of sacrifice among the Hebrews in general, see Lightfoot, De Ministerio Templi, in his Works, and in Ugolino, vol. 9, ch. 8; Carpzov, App. p. 699 sq.; Outram, De Sacrif: Lib. (Lond. 1677), vol. 2 (only the first book relates to the Jewish sacrifices); Reland, Antiq. Sacr. 3, 1; Bauer, Gottesdienst-Verfass. 1, 80 sq.; Rosenmulller, Excursus 1, ad Leviticus; Gramberg, Relig. Ideen, 1, 94 sq.; Scholl, in the Wurtemberg. Stud. 1, 2, 152 sq.; 4, 1, 3 sq.; 5, 1, 108 sq.; Bahr, Symbol. 2, 189 sq.; Kurtz, Das mos. Opfer (Mitau, 1842). The Jewish views of the ritual of sacrifice are especially set forth in the tracts Sebachim, Menachoth, and Temura, in the fifth part of the Mishna. From these and the rabbins extracts are given by Otho, Lex. Talm. p. 621 sq. The entire Babylonish Gemara to the tract Sebachim, and the Tosiphta to the same tract, are found in Hebrew and Latin in Ugolini Thesaur. vol. 19. LVALMany parallels and explanations are found in the Phoenician table of offerings discovered some years since in Marseilles, and published, with a commentary, by Movers (Breslau, 1847). (On the offerings of other Eastern and Western nations, see Flugel, Volkel, and Wachter, in the Hall. Encykl. 3, \'a7 4:p. 77 sq.)\par The law adopted as a model the sacrifices already long in use, and gives exact directions as to the kinds of sacrifices and the ceremonies of offering. (We cannot here discuss the question of how much of this law was Mosaic. In answer to the view of De Wette, Von Bohlen, George, and others that the greater part had a still later origin, see Bleek, in the Stud. u. Krit. 1831, 3, 491 sq.; Bahr, Symbol. 2, 192 sq.) This law of offerings may be summed up thus:\par 1. The subjects to be sacrificed, in the proper sense of the word, which were laid, that is, on the burning altar of Jehovah, must be borrowed as well out of the vegetable as the animal kingdom. (In the wider sense of offering, even tithes, first fruits, and incense are included. Comp. the offering of wood, Neh 10:35.) Hence there is a distinction between offerings without blood (<START HEBREW>tojn*m=<END HEBREW>\par , menachoth, <START GREEK>\par prosforai/, dw=ra<END GREEK>\par ) and offerings with blood (<START HEBREW><yj!b*z!<END HEBREW>\par , zebachim, <START GREEK>\par qusi/ai<END GREEK>\par ). See 1 Sam 2:29; 3:14; Ps 40:7; Heb 8:3. The latter were considered the more important. But salt, a mineral, was added to every distinct sacrifice of either kind. The vegetable products offered were both solid and fluid; of the former, roasted grain, flour, cakes with olive oil (the cakes always without leaven or honey), and incense as an accompaniment, formed the meat offerings (the <START HEBREW>hj*n=m!<END HEBREW>\par , minchah, in the proper sense); of the latter, wine formed the drink offerings (<START HEBREW>Es#n#<END HEBREW>\par , nesek). The animals offered must be clean, and such as were fit for food (Josephus, Ant. 12,LVAL 5, 4; comp. Gen 8:20), and must be tame beasts, as cattle (Bochart, Hieroz. 1, 326 sq.), goats, sheep, and sometimes turtle doves and young pigeons, but never fishes. They must be altogether free from deformity (spotless, perfect, <START GREEK>\par a&noumo$, te/leio$<END GREEK>\par , Lev 22:20 sq.; comp. Mal 1:8,14; Herod. 2:38; Plutarch, Orac. Def. p. 49; Ovid, Met. 15, 130; Virgil, Aen. 4, 57; Pliny, 8, 70; Athen. 15, 674; Tertull. Apol. c. 14; with the passage in Plutarch may be compared Polluc. Onom. 1, 1, 1 29; Schol. ad Aristoph. Acarn. p. 785; on the expressions in Lev 22:20 sq., see Bochart, Hieroz. 1, 594 sq.; 4 comp. Baldinger, praes. Hottinger, De Victim. Integritate 1 et Mysterio [Heidelb. 1731]). Except the doves, they must be at least eight days old, because younger flesh is unfit for food (Ex 22:30; Lev 22:27), the smaller cattle being usually yearlings (sheep, goats, 4 calves, Ex 29:38; Lev 9:3; 12:6; 14:10; 23:12,18 sq.; Num 15:27; 28:9 sq.), while the larger were young, perhaps usually three years old (yet Judg 6:25 mentions a bull of seven years as a sacrifice; comp. Pliny, 8, 77; Herod. ii, 38). The sex of four-footed beasts for sacrifice was sometimes indifferent (as in thank and sin offerings; comp. Lev 3:1,6; yet in all public offerings the Mishna requires males, Temzura, 2, 1), and sometimes males were required, as in burned offerings; for the male sex was considered the superior. The choice of the kind of beast was free in the burned offerings and thank offerings (Lev 1:2; 3:1,6), but was determined by law in the trespass and sin offerings (Lev 4:3). Human sacrifices, as heathenish (Lev 18:21; 20:2 sq.; Deut 12:31), were avoided by the pious Israelites (Ps 106:37), although their sacred history contained an example of the purposed sacrifice of a son by his father (Gen 22), and in the unsettled days of the judges a daughter fell under the sacrificial knife of her superstitious father (Judg 11). On the human sacrifices of other nations, see Baur, Mythology, 2, 2, 293 sq.; WacLVALhsmuth, Hellen. AIterth. 2, 549 sq.; and on those of the apostate Israelites, See MOLOCH. The slanderous statement that the Jews slaughtered strangers and drank their blood arose about the time of Antiochus Epiphanes (see Josephus, Apion, 2, 8; Ghillany, Die Menschenopfer der alten Heb. [Nuremberg, 1842]; Hall. Lit. Zeit. 1844, No. 220-223). The legal and regular circle of sacrificial beasts is explicable from the agricultural pursuits of the Israelites: oxen, goats, and sheep were the usual stock of farmers, and corn, oil, and wine were the chief productions of the soil for the commonest wants of life. The addition of doves springs from the fact that scarcely any creatures with life suitable for sacrifice could be found save among birds, and doves were the most common domestic birds. But why not chickens; and why, according to the rabbins, could not chickens be kept in the holy city? (comp. Eskuche, De Gallis et Gallinis ad Aram Jovoe non Factis [Rint. 1741]). See FATTED FOWL. Each person was required to furnish his own sacrifices, and those who lived near enough drove them from their own herds. But later there arose in Jerusalem traders in beasts for sacrifice (victimarii ngotiatores; Pliny, H.N. 7, 10; Mishna, Shekal. 7, 2), and at the time of Jesus a regular market for this purpose stood in the vicinity of the Temple (q.v.).\par 2. The place where alone sacrifices might be presented was the court of the national sanctuary \emdash the tabernacle first and afterwards the Temple (Deut 12:5 sq., 11), and every offering elsewhere was to be punished with death (Lev 17:4 sq.; Deut 12:13; comp. 1 Kings 12:27). The place is more exactly called "the door of the tabernacle of the congregation" (Lev 1:3; 3:2,8; 4:4,14); and, according to the Mishna (Sebach. c. 5), the offerings were slain, part on the north side of the altar, part, the less holy, at any place in the court indifferently (comp. Plato, Leges, 10, 910). These regulations were designed to prevent the idolatrous worship which might have been concLVALealed under the mask of the legal ritual.. Besides, the common place of worship must have had a beneficial influence on the spirit of a nation so torn into factions (comp. 1 Kings 12:27). This common place of sacrifice was not always observed in the time of the judges, nor even of David (1 Kings 3:2,3). Sacrifices were made away from the tabernacle (Judg 2:5; 1 Sam 7:17; 1 Kings 1:9), especially on high places (Judg 6:26; 13:19; Hos 4:13). Even the law-abiding Samuel did this (1 Samuel l.c.), and David tolerated it (1 Kings 3:2 sq.). These sacrifices on high places lasted after Solomon's time, even under theocratic kings. In the kingdom of Israel the common place of sacrifice was abandoned. In the time of the judges the irregularity sprang from the confusion of jurisdiction and the unsettled condition of the people, everywhere pressed by their enemies; yet it is, on the whole, probable that such entire exclusiveness of locality was not so severely demanded by the Mosaic law as later, after the unfortunate consequences of private and voluntary sacrifices were seen.\par 3. The purpose of the sacrifices was special \emdash either to thank God for benefits received, or to propitiate him because of sins and errors. Hence the distinction of thank offerings and sin and trespass offerings. The burned offerings had a more general tendency (comp. the division of sacrifices in Philo, Opp. 2, 240; see Scholl, in Klaiber's Studien, 4, 1, 36 sq.). The Hebrew sacrifices are enumerated, though not defined with exactness, in Num 15:3 sq.; Deut 12:6; Jer 17:26. On the classes of Carthaginian sacrifices, see Movers (Phoniz. p. 19, 41). These various offerings produced great variety of ceremonies, as now in the masses of the Roman Catholics. On great public festivals, great collective offerings like hecatombs are mentioned (1 Kings 8:5,63 sq.; 2 Chron 29:32 sq.; 30:24; 35:7 sq.; comp. Herod. 7:43; Xenoph. Hell. 6, 4, 29; Sueton. Calig. 14; Capitol. in Maxim. et Balbin. c. 11).\par Offerings were sometimes public (compLVAL. Herod. 6:57; Xenoph. Athen. 2, 9), sometimes private, sometimes prescribed, sometimes voluntary; the latter were sometimes family sacrifices (1 Sam 1:21; 20:6). One person had sacrifices offered for another, as the Catholics with masses (Job 1:5; 2 Macc 3:32). Not only the Israelites, but the heathen, were permitted to sacrifice to Jehovah (Num 15:14; 2 Macc 3:35; 13:23; Philo, Opp. 2, 569; Josephus, Apion, 2, 5; Mishna, Shekal. 7, 6), and the Jews even made sacrifices for heathen princes on the altars of Jehovah (1 Macc 7:33; Josephus, Ant. 12, 2, 5). Originally they were offered only for the living, sometimes when death was near (Ecclus 38:11); but after the resurrection became a general belief sacrifices for the dead arose (2 Macc 12:43). There is, indeed, no other instance, and perhaps they never were customary, especially as they are not in harmony with the law (see Grotius, ad loc.). The polemic writers against the Catholic masses for the dead repudiate them indignantly (Chemnitz, Exam. Concil. Trid. p. 736 sq. [ed. Francf.]; Pfaff, Num ex 2 Macc. 12:39 sq. adstrui possint Missce et Preces pro Defunctis [Tubing. 1749]), or suppose that the narrator forged the account (Hyper. in the Miscell. Duisburg. 1, 453).\par 4. In the sacrifice of offerings with blood the owner himself (see Hottinger, De Function. Laic. circa Victim. [Marburg, 1706]), after being cleansed and sanctified (1 Sam 16:5; Job 1:5; comp. Josephus, Apion, 2, 23; Hesiod, Opp. p. 724 sq.; Ovid, Metam. 10, 434 sq.; Tibul. 2, 1, 11; Herod. 2, 37), led the beast to the altar (Lev 3:1,12; 4:14; 17:4). Among the Greeks and Romans the horns of the beast were gilded (Homer, Iliad, 10, 294; Odys. 3, 384, 426; Plato, Alcib. 2, c. 20; Virgil, Aen. 9, 927; Macrob. Sat. 1, 17, p. 29, ed. Bip.) and crowned (comp. Acts 14:13; see Ovid, Metam. 15, 131; Lucian, Sacrif. vol. 12; Lycophron. Alex. p. 327; Statius, Theb. 4, 449; Pliny, 16, 4; Strabo, 15, 732; Athen. 15, 674; see Wetstein, 2, 543; Walch, Dissert. ad Acta Apost. 3, 200). That this custLVAL om prevailed among the Jews, at least with the thank offerings, is less clear from Josephus (Ant. 13, 8, 2) than from the Mishna (Bikkurim, 3, 2 sq.; comp. in general Lakemacher, Observ. 1, 79 sq.). The owner laid his hand upon the head of the beast (Lev 1:4; 3:2; 4:4,15,24; 8:18; comp. the Egyptian custom, Herod. 2, 40). If the sacrifice was that of a community, the elders performed this duty (Lev 4:15); but when the offering was public, i.e. in the name of the whole people, the ritual mentions this imposition of the hand but in one case (16:21; comp. the Mishna, Menach. 9, 7; yet see 2 Chron 29:23), this ceremony being the formal consecration of the beast to Jehovah; not the laying of the penalty due to sin upon the sacrifice, as Bochart thinks (Hieroz. 1, 330), for the ceremony occurs in the case of the thank offering. According to the rabbins, a regular form of words was used in laying the hands on the victim (Maimon. Hilch. Korban, 3, 9); then it was slain (Lev 3:2; 4:4,15,24; 8:15,19), but this might be, and in later times actually was, done by the priests (2 Chron 29:24); perhaps even by the Levites, but 2 Chron 30:17 does not prove this. Among the Romans, officers called popae or victimarii slew the victim (Bochart, Ilieroz. 1, 330). The blood was then taken up, and in different sacrifices variously sprinkled or poured out by the priest (Hottinger, De Function. Sacer. circa Victim. [Marb. 1706]). According to the varying character of the offering, the blood was sprinkled, or brought into the Temple and there sprinkled upon the ark of the covenant, and put on the horns of the altar of burned offering, and the remainder thrown out at the foot of the altar of burned offering. The sacrificer (yet comp. 2 Chron 29:34) then took off the skin of the victim (Lev 1:6), which belonged, when not burned (4:1), either to the priests (7:8; only said of the burned offering) or to the offerer (comp. the directions in the Talmud-Mishna, Sebach. 12, 2 sq.). So, too, among the Carthaginians (see the lists of offLVAL!erings found in Marseilles, 3, 4, 8, 10). In Sparta the skins of public sacrifices belonged to the kings (Herod. 6:57). The victim was cut to pieces (Lev 1:6; 8:20), which were, in various sacrifices, either all (as the burned offerings), or certain specially valued pieces (in all other offerings; comp. Isa 1:11; Strabo, 15, 732; Catull. 40, 5), burned by the priest upon the altar. In the latter case the flesh belonged to the priests or to the sacrificer, or must be burned outside of the city. (On the ceremony of offering the doves, see Lev 1:14 sq.; 5, 8; comp. Hottinger, De Sacr. Avium [Marb. 1706].) The ceremonies of heaving and waving took place in some sacrifices either before or after the victim was killed. See HEAVE OFFERING; See WAVE OFFERING.\par 5. The yearly expense of sacrifices, both by individuals and the whole people, was not trifling; yet householders had at hand most of the necessary offerings, and wood was brought from the forests. (On the limits within which wood was obtained for Temple use in the later age, see the Mishna, Taanith, 4:5. For the trees used as sacrificial wood, see the tract Tamid, 2, 3.) Later, foreign princes who desired the favor of the Jews applied from their revenues a portion to public sacrifices (Ezra 6:9; 1 Macc 10:39; 2 Macc 3:3; 9:16; Josephus, Ant. 12, 3, 3). (On a peculiar festival of carrying wood, see Josephus, War, 2, 17, 6. It was held in the beginning of the month Elul).\par 6. As an expression of pious gratitude and of reverence towards Jehovah (Ps 66:15; 110:3; Ecclus 38:4; comp. Matt 8:4; Acts 21:26), sacrifices were presented in abundance by the Hebrews through all antiquity, and he who offered none was accounted irreligious (Eccl 9:2; comp. Isa 43:23 sq.). Oaths were made by the offerings (Matt 23:18), and in descriptions of golden antiquity the ideally magnified splendor of the sacrificial ritual appears (Isa 19:21; 56:7; 60:7; Zech 14:21; Jer 17:26; 33:18), while the want of sacrifice is among the terrors of threatened exile (Hos 3:4). Yet tLVAL"he Israelites often forgot in the symbol the higher affection of the heart, and their offerings became an opus operatum. Accordingly the prophets occasionally give warning against overvaluing sacrifices, and strive to call forth a pious disposition, as more pleasing to God than they are, since in them the heart feels nothing (Isa 1:11; Jer 6:20; 7:21 sq.; Hos 6:6; Amos 5:22; Mic 6:6 sq.; comp. Ps 40:7; 50:9 sq.; 51:18 sq.; Prov 21:3; Matt 5:23 sq.; Ecclus 35:1; comp. Plato, Alcib. 2, 150; Diod. Sic. 12, 20; Ovid, Heroid. 20, 181 sq.; Seneca Benef. 1, 6; comp. Siebelis Disput. p. 121 sq.). Such representations do not justify us in denying to the older Israelites the anthropopathic view of sacrifices, and forcing upon ancient simplicity an artificial doctrine. Yet this is done by Bahr (Symbol. 2, 198 sq.; comp. Hoff, Die mos. Opfer nach ihrer sinn- u. vorbildl. Bedeut. [Warsaw, 1845]), who, starting with the statement that offerings with blood were the germ of all (in reference to Lev 17:11), finds in the Mosaic sacrifices the doctrine of symbolic substitution. "The offering and bringing near of the nephesh, or life, in the sacrificial blood upon the altar, as the place of the presence and revelation of God, is a symbol of the offering of the nephesh, or life, of the sacrificer to Jehovah. As this presentation of the blood is a giving up to death of the animal life, so must also the spiritual life of self, as opposed to God, be given up and die. But since the giving up is to Jehovah, the Holy One, it is not merely a ceasing, something negative, but a dying, which in the very act is a becoming alive," etc. Apart from all the assumption in this theory, it is entirely too artificial, one might say too Christian, for Israelitish antiquity. It is necessary, too, to assume that the sacrifices with blood were the original ones, which is not proven; and the doctrine cannot be extended without violence to any but sin offerings (see Kurtz, Mos. Opfr, p. 7 sq.), in which it cannot be denied that the idea of substiLVAL#tution is found. In the period after the exile arose the Essenes, who went further than the prophets, and retained of the outward ritual only the lustrations, not offering sacrifices at all (Josephus, Ant. 18, 1, 5). It is well known that all the ceremonial of sacrifice has been given up by the Jews, since they no longer possess the Temple mountain; yet the Samaritans still yearly offer seven lambs on Mount Gerizim at the Passover (Robinson, 3, 98 sq.). See OFFERING.\par The fact that every individual who brought a sacrifice had to be present in the Temple when it was offered gave rise to the opinion that the daily morning and evening sacrifices which were brought for the whole congregation of Israel required that the congregation should be represented in the Temple at the offering of these national sacrifices. Hence the whole people was divided into twenty-four divisions or orders, corresponding to the divisions of the priests and Levites. Every division chose a number of representatives (<START HEBREW>y?na dmum<END HEBREW>\par ), one of whom was appointed chief (<START HEBREW>dmumh<END HEBREW>\par ), and in turn sent up some of them as a deputation to Jerusalem to represent the nation at the daily sacrifices in the Temple, and pronounce the prayers and blessings in behalf of the people while the sacrifices were offered. They had also to fast four days (i.e. the second, third, fourth, and fifth day) during the week of their representation. Those of the representatives who remained at home assembled in a synagogue to pray during the time of sacrifice. See TEMPLE.\par It will be observed from the above notices that there was one grand point of difference between the Jews and the heathens: the sacrificial rites of the former were never stained with human blood, than which nothing could be conceived more abhorrent to all the attributes of Jehovah (Jephthah's daughter is no exception, for it cannot be proved with certainty that she was sacrificed; on the contrary, many interpreters think that she was LVAL$solemnly dedicated to the service of God). But the testimony of innumerable writers proves that no heathen nation has been free from human sacrifices; such having occurred, even among civilized people, at some period of their history, especially on some great occasion, to expiate a great sin or avert some dreadful calamity. Even to this day among the Hinduls, whose tenets forbid blood shedding, human self-immolations, or sacrificial suicides, are common. Another point of difference is found in the animal sacrifices, which, among the heathens, were frequently of such as were particularly forbidden in the Mosaic law \emdash unclean animals and beasts of prey; such as dogs offered to Hecate, swine to Mars (in the Suovetaurilia), and wolves to Apollo. Heathens in their sacrifices poured oil over the beast, which the Jews did not; they (the former) burned only a portion of the frankincense presented; the Jews burned all. The Greeks offered honey to the sun; in Jewish sacrifices it was forbidden; and the Sabian idolaters ate the blood of their sacrifices, which Maimonides thinks was one of the reasons why it was so particularly prohibited to the Jews. Their bread offerings also were leavened. Some points of similarity are to be found between the Jewish and heathen sacrifices. The heathens brought their victims to the temples, chose them without blemish, poured out libations of wine, cut the animal's throat, flayed and dissected it, caught the blood in a vessel, and poured it on and round the altar; and they used salt by mixing some with meal, and sprinkling it on the head of the animal, on which they also laid their hands. In the early times the sacrifice was burned whole, the skin being given to the priest; but later, part only was consumed and the rest given to the sacrificers (if it was an eatable animal) to feast upon. The thighs and fat were the share of the gods. The victims among the Greeks and Romans were crowned with garlands and adorned with fillets and ribbons, and the horns of large animals wer LVAL e gilded. None of these decorations are enjoined in the Jewish sacrifices. See SACRIFICE.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVALh&{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SACRILEGE\par Sacrilege\par (<START GREEK>\par i(erosole/w<END GREEK>\par , to rob a temple, Rom 2:22; so the noun <START GREEK>\par i(ero/sulo$<END GREEK>\par , "robber of churches, "Acts 19:37), the violation or profanation of holy places, persons, or things. Though the word sacrilege is not used elsewhere than as above in our version of the canonical Scriptures, yet we find the crime itself often alluded to; e.g. "profaning the sanctuary" (Lev 21:22), "profaning hallowed things" (Lev 19:8), "profaning the covenant" (Mal 2:10). The first sacrilegious act we read of is that of Esau selling his birthright (Gen 25:33), for which he is called "profane" by Paul (Heb 12:16). Instances of this under the Mosaic economy (which sternly forbade it [Ex 25:14]) were the cases of Nadab and Abihu (Lev 10), the men of Bethshemesh (1 Sam 5), Uzzah (2 Sam 6:67), Uzziah (2 Chron 26). The Jews at a later period of their history were eminently guilty in this particular, inasmuch as they withheld the tithes and offerings which God required of them (Mal 3:8-10), and converted his holy temple into a market (Matt 21:12,13). This profanation is forbidden in the Talmud (Lightfoot, ad loc.). See TEMPLE. Yet they pretended to be punctiliously scrupulous in their reverence for the interior building (Matt 26:61). So the grand accusation against Stephen was that he spoke disrespectfully of the Temple (Acts 6:13). An uproar was excited against Paul in Jerusalem on the charge that he brought Greeks into the Temple and polluted the holy place (Acts 21:28,29), though daily profanations were committed by the affected zealots with impunity. At length, in the closing scenes of Jerusalem, such were the multitude and the magnitude of the sacrileges that Josephus says if the Romans had not taken the city of Jerusalem he would have expeRLVALbcted it to have been swallowed up like Sodom, or have had some other dreadful judgment. The jealousy of the Almighty respecting things dedicated to him, and his punishment of the profanation of them, are alluded to by Paul (1 Cor 3:17): "If any man defile the temple of God, him shall God destroy; for the temple of God is holy, which temple ye are." We read but little else in the N.T. pertaining to sacrilege except Paul's rebuke of the Corinthians for their profane conduct at the celebration of the Lord's supper (1 Cor 11:29). In that early period of the Christian Church, it had not been able as yet regularly to establish sacred places and things; but as soon as circumstances permitted, we shall find in the Church history of every nation a due respect for consecrated things, and laws for their preservation. Even the heathens, particularly the Greeks and Romans, were not without their rules concerning sacrilege, the penalty of which was usually death. Thus it was held sacrilege for the polluted to pass beyond the porch of the temple, to spit or wipe the nose in a temple, to cut down consecrated trees, to build upon or till any spot of ground where a thunderbolt had fallen, to suffer a man to witness the ceremonies of the Bona Dea, or Good Goddess, or to suffer a woman to enter the temple of Diana in the Vicus Patricius in Rome, to suffer a birth or death to occur in the holy isle of Delos, to steal anything belonging to a temple, to approach a sacrifice without being sprinkled by the priest with the lustral water, to consecrate a blemished man to the priesthood (compare with the Jewish law, Lev 21:21), and many other instances which will occur to the classical reader.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } rLVAL{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SACRILEGE, CHRISTIAN VIEW OF\par Sacrilege, Christian View Of.\par The ancient Church distinguished several sorts of sacrilege:\par 1 st, the diverting things appropriated to sacred purposes to other uses; to break or burn the furniture of the Church, or deliver it to be broken or burned;\par 2 d, robbing the graves or defacing and spoiling the monuments of the dead;\par 3 d, those were considered as sacrilegious persons who delivered up their Bibles and the sacred utensils of the Church to the pagans in the time of the Diocletian persecution;\par 4 th, profaning the sacraments, churches, altars, etc.;\par 5 th, molesting or hindering a clergyman in the performance of his office;\par 6 th, depriving men of the use of the Scriptures or the sacraments, particularly the cup in the eucharist, the last being condemned by Gelasius and pope Leo, and yet not recognised as sacrilege by the Romish casuists. See SACRILEGIUM. In England sacrilege is not now a legal, but a popular term, used to denote the breaking into a place of worship and stealing therefrom. The legal offense comes generally under the head of burglary or housebreaking. A less punishment applies to the offense when committed in dissenting chapels. In Scotland there is no increase of severity in the punishment by reason of the sacred character of the things stolen.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVALh){\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SACRILEGIUM\par Sacrilegium,\par in Roman Catholic theology, is a term denoting contempt of God or of divine and holy things when expressed in act, the utterance of such feeling in speech being characterized by the word blasphemy (q.v.) This crime may be committed either directly against the holiest objects by unworthy partaking of the consecrated bread and wine or otherwise desecrating their character (sacrilegium immediatum); or indirectly against consecrated persons, things, or places (sacrilegium mediatum). The latter form is consequently either personale, incurred through violation of the privilegium canonis, or assault on the persons of individuals belonging to the clerical and monastic orders, See PRIVILEGIUM CANONIS, with intent to do bodily harm, or through violations of the law of chastity by persons of rank in such orders (sacrilegium carnale); or it is sacrilegium reale, consisting in the employment of sacred edifices and their decorations, vessels, utensils, etc., for common or even wicked purposes; the purloining of things which have been set apart for the use of a church by consecration or benediction (q.v.), or which have been placed in a church for protection and safe keeping; the alienating from or denying to the Church of legal and customary revenues; the voluntary transfer of objects used in the worship and other services of the Church to the enemies of Christianity, particularly in times of persecution, etc.; and the receiving of any "sacrament of the living" (q.v.) while in a state of mortal sin, and without having previously been absolved: or, lastly, the sacrilegium is locale, and may be committed by consciously violating an ecclesiastical asylum, See ASYLUM, by breaking a local interdict (q.v.) with armed force, by desecrating holy places with murder, the guilty spilling of hLVAL*uman blood or human sperm, the interment of unbelievers and excommunicated persons in churches and burial grounds belonging to the Church, etc.\par The punishments denounced against this crime have been severe under every code. According to the canon law, sacrilege committed against the venerabile itself was visited with the anathema; against other sacred things, with the ban; and in case of obstinate contumacy, with the denial of Christian burial (c. 2, 10, "De Rapt." 5, 17; c. 22, 10," De Sent. Excomm." 5, 39). The Roman law punished robbery of churches, unless mitigating circumstances intervened, with death (Inst. \'a7 9, "De Publ. Jud." 4, 18). The criminal code of Charles V decreed the punishment of death by fire against the theft of a monstrance or a ciborium (q.v.) containing the host, and death in a milder form against the theft of other sacred objects belonging to the altar and used in worship. Plundering an alms chest might be punished by either corporal inflictions or death, and the abstraction of unconsecrated objects from churches and sacristies (unless accompanied with violence or committed at night) by the infliction of penalties denounced upon ordinary burglaries (CC. C. of 1532, art. 172-175). The more recent administration of criminal law in Germany likewise invariably imposes severe penalties upon crimes committed against the Church. Licentiousness on the part of clergymen belonging to the higher orders is punished by suspension and penances; if committed by monks, by confinement and severe penances. The violator of a nun, if a clergyman, is deposed, See DEPOSITION; if a layman, is excommunicated; and the nun herself is subjected to close confinement and mortifications of the body (c. 6, 21; c. 27, qu. 1). Under the Roman law the violator of a consecrated female was beheaded (lib. 2, cod. "De Episc. et Cler." 1, 3, Nov. 123, c. 43), and this penalty was retained under the code of the German empire.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 28LVALH000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVALh,{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SACRING BELL\par Sacring bell\par (campanella, timbele) was rung at the elevation inside the church, in England, by the Constitutions of Cantelupe in 1240, as a warning of devotion. Becon says while the elements were blessed the serving boy or parish clerk rang the little sacring bell, at which the people knelt down while the host was elevated. The second sacring was the crossing of the chalice with the host. The custom has been attributed to cardinal Grey when legate in Germany, cir. 1203; it was confirmed by Gregory IX in 1259. At the beginning of the 13 th century, at Paris, the bells were rung at this time. The Armenians use a cymbal, with little bells, called the quechouez. A sacring bell was found in the wall of Deddington church, and that of Hawstead still hangs above the roodscreen, The use of this bell has been traced back to the 11 th century; and before 1114, Ivo, bishop of Chartres, thanked queen Maud of England for the bells which she had given to Chartres, and says they were rung at the elevation. The custom is confined to Western Christendom, and is unknown at Rome. In Spain they use a melodious peal of bells, which chime a silvery music, instead of the ordinary tinkling of a single bell, at the moment of consecration, when the divine words of institution are recited by the celebrant; and, at the elevation of the host, Aubrey mentions that at Brokenborough, Wilts, there were eighteen little bells rung by pulling one wheel. Such wheels, it is believed, are still preserved at Yaxley and Long Stratton. In the Roman Church it is rung thrice at the Sanctus, once before and three times at the elevation of the host, three times at the elevation of the chalice, and at the Domine non sum dignus, and once before the Pater (the latter dating from the 16 th century), and also at benediction with ttLVALhe sacrament.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVALt{\rtf1\ansi\ansicpg1252\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SACRISTY\par \par Sacristy,\par \par an apartment in a church or convent in which are kept the sacred objects used in the public worship, and in which the clergy and other public functionaries who take part in the service assemble and prepare for the ceremonies on which they are about to enter. In many churches the sacristy is a spacious and costly building.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SACRIS SOLEMNIIS JUNCTA SINT GAUDIA\par Sacris Solemniis Juncta Sint Gaudia\par is the beginning of a festival hymn composed by Thomas Aquinas, of which the first stanza runs thus:\par "Sacris solemniis juncta sint gaudia,\par Et ex praecordiis soneut praeconia;\par Recedant vetera, nova sint omnia,\par Corda, voces, et opera."\par There is an English translation by Chambers in the Lyra Eucharistica, p. 70:\par "Let this our solemn feast\par With holy joys be crowned," etc.;\par and another by Caswall in Hymns and Poems, Original and Translated, p. 54:\par "Let old things pass away,\par Let all be fresh and bright," etc. \par There is also a German translation of this hymn in Bassler's Auswahl altchristlicher Lieder (Berlin, 1858), p. 116, and a second one in Rambach, Anthologie christlicher Gesange, 1, 311.\par B. P. \par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVALh/{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SACRISTAN\par Sacristan.\par (1.) The monastic treasurer and church warden. He provided all the necessaries for divine service; was keeper of the church keys, relics, fabric, plate, furniture, and ornaments; secretary, and chancellor. He arranged the way of processions for the prsecentor, superintended the bell-ringers, and received the rents, oblations, and burial fees. At Canterbury he delivered the crosier to the new archbishop. At Ely he received the candle corn (one sheaf of corn in every acre), to supply the lights, and, as the bishop's vicar, exercised archidiaconal jurisdiction over the city chaplains. At Peterborough his fee were the horses of a knight buried in the minster, if under four marks in value, otherwise they accrued to the abbot; and at Worcester. the abbots of Gloucester, Tewkesbury, Pershore, and Evesham gave him a cope of profession at their benediction.\par (2.) Vice-custos, the vicar of the treasurer, or sub-treasurer at York in 1230. He opened the doors of the sacristy in the morning, admitted the rectors of choir and sick members who desired to say the Hours privately. He warned canons of chapter, kept the doors shut during its session, rang the bells, and led the procession. Bishop Storey mentions the use of the word sacrist in an inferior sense as recent in the 15 th century. Where there was no permanent sacristan in a cathedral, a canon was appointed, called praefect of sacristy. In the Decretals of Gregory IX and at Lyons (1269) the sacrist was the inferior of the sacristan. In the new foundations he furnished the sacred elements, administered sacraments, officiated at marriages and burials, was the curate of the chapter, like the foreign parochus, and had charge of the bells, church goods, furniture, and lights. At Girgenti there are four sacrists; at Mayence he was aLVAL vicar, and at Angers a cubicular, or chamberlain, who administered the sacraments to sick canons and the choir clergy.\par (3.) The sacristan at mass has charge of the vessels, and attends in a surplice at the credence table, which is placed on the south side of the altar, and arranges on it the chalice, covered with the linen cloth called the purifier; and also the paten, which is covered with a stiff cloth and a rich veil of silk; the cruets for wine and water; the Gospel and Epistle books; the ewer, basin, and water for washing the celebrant's fingers; the corporal, or cloth on which the chalice and host are placed, and contained in a burse, or embroidered case; a crucifix, and two tapers.\par (4.) A church servant, now called sexton.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVAL {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SACROBOSCO, JOHN DE\par \par Sacrobosco (Or Holywood), John De,\par \par an English ecclesiastic of the 13 th century, is supposed to have been born at Halifax, in Yorkshire, but is claimed also as a native of Ireland and Scotland. He became a canon regular of the Order of St. Augustine in the monastery of Holywood, in Nithsdale. He afterwards went to Paris, and became professor of mathematics. His death occurred in 1256. His principal work was Sphaera Mundi (1648, 8 vo). Other works were, De Anni Ratione, seu de Computo Ecclesiastico: \emdash De AIgorismo. \par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SACROBOSCO, CHRISTOPHER\par \par Sacrobosco, Christopher,\par \par a native of Dublin, Ireland, in the early part of the 17 th century, is chiefly known as the author of the work Defensio Decreti Tridentini et Sententioe Rob. Bellarmini et Authoritate Yutgatoe Editionis Latinoa contra Whitakerum, etc. (1604, 8 vo).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } |LVAL{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SADAMIAS\par \par Sadami'as\par \par (Vulg. Sadamias, the Greek original being lost), given in the Apocrypha (2 Esd 1:1,1) instead of SHALLUM See SHALLUM (q.v.) in the ancestry of Ezra (Ezra 7:2).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SACY, LOUIS ISAAC LE MAISTRE DE\par \par Sacy, Louis Isaac le Maistre de,\par \par an eminently pious and learned Port-Royalist divine and Biblical critic, was born at Paris in 1613. He was shut up in the Bastille on account of his Jansenist doctrines, and died in 1684. The New Test. translated by De Sacy, and known as the Testament de Mons, was condemned by pope Clement IX in 1668. De Sacy's version of Thomas a Kempis's De Imitatione has had 150 editions. His commentary on the Scriptures has continued to maintain a high character. It is essentially valuable for unfolding the spiritual meaning of the sacred text. De Sacy was assisted in the work by Du Fosse, Charles Hure, and Le Tourneaux. Many editions have been printed, both of the original work and of abridgments. The edition of 1692 is the best; that of 1705-30, bound variously in 40, 45, or 54 vols. 12 mo, is esteemed for its convenient form; that of 1781, printed at Nismes, in 25 vols. 8 vo, has the advantage of being edited, with additions, by Rondet. De Sacy also wrote Lettres Chretiennes et Spirituelles (Paris, 1690, 2 vols. 8 vo).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVALh3{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SACY, ANTOINE ISAAC SILVESTRE DE, BARON\par Sacy, Antoine Isaac Silvestre De, Baron,\par a celebrated French Orientalist, was born at Paris Sept. 21, 1758. At an early age he showed great aptitude for the study of languages; but it was mainly from self instruction, with the help of irregular private lessons, that his immense learning was acquired. In Hebrew he was helped by a Jew; in Arabic, by a Benedictine monk, Berthereau. Having entered upon the practice of the law at the age of twenty-three, he retired in 1789, at the age of thirty, and devoted several years to private study. During the Reign of Terror, he lived very humbly among peasants, and could make but furtive visits to the libraries of Paris. Early in his learned career he, had opened correspondence with the chief Orientalists of Europe \emdash with J.D. Michaelis, Sir Wm. Jones, Eichhorn, and others. To Eichhorn's Repertorium he contributed frequent essays. In France he published in 1785 an essay on the origin of Arabic literature, and in 1787 an abridgment of the Natural History of Demiri. Still more valuable and erudite was his work Memoires sur Diverses Antiquites de la Perse (1793). In 1792 he was made a member of the Academie des Inscriptions; and when, in 1795, the Convention founded a school for the study of modern Oriental languages, De Sacy was made professor of Arabic, a post which he held till his death. In 1806 he became also professor of Persian at the College de France. From this time he was very productive in all the branches of Oriental learning. Many of his works have had a very fruitful influence upon Biblical criticism. We mention particularly a translation of Makrisi's treatise On Mohammedan M.edals (1797): \emdash The Outlines of Universal Grammar (1799): his Chrestomathie Arabe (1806, 3 vols.): \emdash his large LVALArabic Grammar (1810): \emdash Calila-ve-Dimna, the Arabic text of the Fables of Pilpay (1816): \emdash the Pend-Nameh (Book of Counsels), a Persian didactic poem (1819): \emdash The Sessions of Hariri, a romance in Arabic (1821): \emdash and his work On the Religion of the Druids (1838, 2 vols.). The amount of learning which these works contain and imply can only be appreciated by Oriental specialists. Besides the works mentioned, he contributed scores of essays to learned journals in Germany and elsewhere. His style is simple and direct. The chief defect is a lack of poetic delicacy and of rhetorical polish. De Sacy, though beginning his career in obscurity, was finally abundantly honored. In 1808 he was given the honorary position of membership in the Corps Legislatif: In 1813 he was made a baron. In 1814 he became rector of the University of Paris. After the Revolution of 1830 he was made a peer of France and a grand officer of the Legion of Honor. Honors from abroad also came upon him in abundance. He founded chairs for the Sanskrit and the Chinese language at the College de France; and he continued his public lectures, six per week (an unusual number for a Parisian savant) down to the day of his sickness. In politics he was conservative, in character upright, in religion Catholic. On Feb. 19, 1838, he was stricken with apoplexy on the street, and died three days after. See two biographical sketches in the Journal Asiatique, 1838; Encycl. Brit. vol. 19; Herzog, Real-Encyklop. 13, 287-289.\par J. P. L. \par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVALT {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SADDAEUS\par \par Saddae'us\par \par (or rather Daddoe'us [as in 1 Esd 8:46], \par <START GREEK>Daddai=o$\par <END GREEK>, v.r. \par <START GREEK>Doldai=o$, Loddai=o$\par <END GREEK>, and \par <START GREEK>Lodai=o$\par <END GREEK>), a corrupt Graecized form (1 Esd 8:45) of the name IDDO (q.v.) of the Hebrew text (Ezra 8:17).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SADAS\par \par Sa'das\par \par (\par <START GREEK>Sada/$\par <END GREEK> v.r. \par <START GREEK>\~)Astai/, )Argai/\par <END GREEK>), a corrupt Graecized form (1 Esd 5:13) of the name AZGAD See AZGAD (q.v.) of the Heb. text (Ezra 2:12).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SADANANA\par \par Sadanana\par \par (the god with six faces), in Hindu mythology, is a surname of the twelve-handed Skanda, who was born to Shiva the Destroyer by the two sisters Ganga and Ulma. Sadanana slew the giant Torake by cutting him through the middle, and then transformed half of the body into a peacock, upon which he rides. He is greatly revered in India, and has many pagodas.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVALh6{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SADDLE\par Saddle\par \par (<START HEBREW>bk*r=m#<END HEBREW>\par , merkaib, a "chariot" [1 Kings 4:26; Heb 5:6]; also a seat in a chariot or other vehicle, "saddle" [Lev 15:9]; "covering" of a palanquin [Song 3:10]). See CHARIOT.\par The word which our translators elsewhere (Gen 22:3; Num 22:21; Judg 19:10; 2 Sam 16:1; 17:23; 1 Kings 2:40; 13:13,23,27; 2 Kings 4:24) render by "to saddle" literally signifies "to bind about" (as Ex 29:9; John 2:6, and often) \emdash namely, with the bags or panniers used for riding or carrying burdens. It is certain that saddles were unknown for many ages after the custom of riding had been introduced. Those who did not ride bareback were contented with placing a piece of leather or cloth between them and their steed. As luxury advanced, a soft cushion was introduced, to which were added various ornamental trappings, and these were soon carried to a ridiculous excess of ostentation. Saddles, properly so called, were in all probability invented by the Persians, perhaps for the sake of giving a steady seat to their mounted archers, a part of their military force to which they always paid the greatest attention. Pack saddles must have been s much earlier invention, for something was obviously necessary to prevent the backs of animals bearing heavy burdens from being chafed by the loads (see Kitto, Pict. Bible, at Judg 19:10). See ASS; See CAMEL; See HORSE. The ordinary pack saddles of the camels were high, and made of wood; carpets, cloths, etc., were heaped upon it, to form a comfortable seat for ladies who do not use the cradle, or hamper, while travelling. The cloths, etc., were removed at the end of the day's journey, and, being laid on the ground, served as a sort of mattress in the tent, on which a person might sit or lie down, while he reclined against the pacVLVALfk saddle itself (Gen 31:34).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } (LVAL :{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SADDUC\par \par Sad'duc\par \par (or rather Saddu'cus, \par <START GREEK>Sa/ddouko$\par <END GREEK>, s.v. \par <START GREEK>Saddou/louko$\par <END GREEK>), the Grsecized form (1 Esd 8:2) of the name of ZADOK (q.v.), the high priest, one of Ezra's ancestors (Ezra 7:2).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SADDLER, ISAAC P.\par \par Saddler, Isaac P., D.D.\par \par a Methodist Episcopal minister, was born in Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania, October 5, 1807. He was converted in 1839, licensed to preach in 1840, entered the Pittsburgh Conference in 1853, was superannuated in 1872, and assigned to the East Ohio Conference at its organization in 1876. He died suddenly, March 2, 1882. See Minutes of Annual Conferences, 1882, page 329.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVALh9{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SADDUCEES\par Sad'ducee\par (strictly Sadducce'an, <START GREEK>\par Saddoukai=o$<END GREEK>\par [Matt 3:7; 16:1,6,11,12; 22:23,34; Mark 12:18; Luke 20:27; Acts 4:1; 5; 17; 23:6,7,8]), the usual designation of one of the three sects or orders of Judaism in the time of Christ, the other two being the Essenes and the Pharisees. They were originally a religious party, if such free thinkers could fairly be so designated. See SECTS, JEWISH.\par I. Name of the Sect and its Signification. \emdash According to the current tradition of the Jews, the appellation <START HEBREW>yq!WDx^<END HEBREW>\par , Tsaddukim, of which <START GREEK>\par Saddoukai=oi<END GREEK>\par = Sadduccei is the Greek form (used by Josephus and the New Test. as above), is derived from Zadok, the name of the founder of this sect, who was a disciple of Antigonus of Soho, B.C. 200-170. See SCHOOL. This is not onlv declared in the Aboth di Rabbi ANathan (cap. 5), but by Saadia Gaon, 892-942 A.D.; by R. Nathan (cir. 1030-1106 A.D.), in his lexicon called Aruch, s.v. <START HEBREW>/yswtyb<END HEBREW>\par ; by Maimonides ( 1135-1204 A.D.), in his commentary on Aboth (1, 3), but by the greatest Jewish authorities since the 9 th century of the Christian era. Dr. Geiger, who, in his Urschrift und Uebersetzungen der Bibel (p. 105), argues in a most elaborate manner that there are not sufficient historical data for deriving the name Sadducee from Zadok, a disciple of Antigonus of Soho, derives it, nevertheless, from this proper name, which he assigns to another person of an earlier date, as will be seen in the sequel. Epiphanius, however, seems to derive it from a double source \emdash viz. from a proper name Zadok, and from the Hebrew noun <START HEBREW>qd#x#<END HEBREW>\par , righteousness. He says that they call themselves SadduceesLVAL: because this name is derived from righteousness, as Zedek denotes righteousness (<START GREEK>\par \~)Eponoma/zousin e(autou\\$ Saddoukai/ou$ dh=qen a)po\\ dikaiosu/nh$ th=$ e)piklh/sew$ o(rmwme/nh$: sede\\k ga\\r e(rmhneu/etai dikaiosu/nh<END GREEK>\par ), and that there was also anciently a priest named Zadok, but they did not continue in the doctrines of their (<START GREEK>\par e)pista/th$<END GREEK>\par ) chief (Adiersus Hoereses, 1, 14). Dr. Low rejects altogether the derivation of Sadducee from the proper name Zadok, for the following reasons:\par (1.) Because there is no precedent in the whole ancient Jewish history for the followers of a sect to be called by the name of the chief of the sect, and that it is as contrary to the genius of the Hebrew if <START HEBREW>yqwdx<END HEBREW>\par is taken as the proper name <START HEBREW>qwrx<END HEBREW>\par , with <START HEBREW>y<END HEBREW>\par appended, to translate it a follower of Zadok, as it would be to render <START HEBREW>ymubry<END HEBREW>\par , a follower of Jeroboam. \par (2.) The older Talmudic literature knows nothing of Zadok and Boethus, the supposed originators of the Sadducees.\par (3.) The Sadducees, as is evident from ancient sources, called themselves <START HEBREW><yq!yD!x^<END HEBREW>\par , the righteous (Epiphanius, Adversus Hoereses, 1, 1, 4). Hence Dr. Low concludes that, in harmony with his Hebrew name <START HEBREW>qyD!x^<END HEBREW>\par , the Sadducee called himself in Greek <START GREEK>\par eu)qu/$<END GREEK>\par , the straightforwarid, open, honest, righteous, and that the opponents of this sect changed both the honorable Hebrew appellation <START HEBREW><yqyrx<END HEBREW>\par ; into <START HEBREW><yqwrx<END HEBREW>\par (hence the singular <START HEBREW>yqwdx<END HEBREW>\par = Sadducee), and the Greek name <START GREEK>\par eu)qu/$<END GREEK>\par , which is written in Hebrew <START HEBREW>swtba<END HEBREW>\par (according to the analogy of <START HEBREW>swnygba<END HEBREW>\par = <START GREEK>\paLVAL;r eu)genh/$<END GREEK>\par ), into <START HEBREW>swtyb<END HEBREW>\par , from which originated <START HEBREW><yswtyb<END HEBREW>\par , Boethusians. He moreover maintains that it is for this reason that the Talmud makes no distinction between the Sadducees and the Boethusians (Ben-Chananja, 1, 346 sq.). This definition of the appellation Sadducee is entirely speculative, and its soundness must be determined by an examination of the rise, progress, and doctrines of the Sadducees. Besides, the first objection against the derivation of <START HEBREW>yqwdx<END HEBREW>\par from the proper name <START HEBREW>qwdx<END HEBREW>\par is set aside by the fact that the first Karaites called themselves <START HEBREW><yynnu<END HEBREW>\par , followers of Anan, Ananites; so that <START HEBREW>ynnu<END HEBREW>\par , an Asnanite, is an exact parallel to <START HEBREW>yqwdx<END HEBREW>\par , a Zadokite. Still more speculative, and altogether unique, is the opinion of Koster that "Sadducee is simply a different form of Stoic" (Studien und Kritiken, 1837, p. 164). According to some readings the Sadducees also called themselves <START HEBREW><yarq<END HEBREW>\par , Scripturalists, Bible-followers, Karaites (Megilla, 24 b; Jerusalem Megilla, 4:9), because they adhered to the written law. This is in perfect accordance with the ancient custom of calling a Biblical student by the honorable Hebrew appellation <START HEBREW>ar^q*<END HEBREW>\par (formed according to the analogy of <START HEBREW>/Y*D^<END HEBREW>\par ); or by the Aramaic form <START HEBREW>yorq*<END HEBREW>\par (defective of <START HEBREW>aywyq<END HEBREW>\par ), or <START HEBREW>yr^q*<END HEBREW>\par , formed according to the analogy of <START HEBREW>yK^z^<END HEBREW>\par . Thus Chanina, Abba Chalifa, Eliezer ben-Simon, and Levi ben-Sisi, were designated by this title (Taanith, 27 b; Baba Bathra, 123; Midrash Rabba on Levit. cap. 30; Jalkut, On the Song of Songs, \'a7 533); and the Talmud tells us that those were deemed worthy of this name "whLVAL<o understood how to read accurately the law, the prophets, and the Hagiographa" (comp. Kiddushin, 42; Furst, Karaerothum, p. 129).\par II. Scripture Notices. \emdash Although frequently mentioned in the New Test. in conjunction with the Pharisees, they do not throw such vivid light as their great antagonists on the real significance of Christianity. Except on one occasion, when they united with the Pharisees in insidiously asking for a sign from heaven (Matt 16:1,4,6), Christ never assailed the Sadducees with the same bitter denunciations which he uttered against the Pharisees; and they do not, like the Pharisees, seem to have taken active measures for causing him to be put to death. In this respect, and in many others, they have not been so influential as the Pharisees in the world's history; but still they deserve attention, as representing Jewish ideas before the Pharisees became triumphant, and as illustrating one phase of Jewish thought at the time when the new religion of Christianity, destined to produce such a momentous revolution in the opinions of mankind, issued from Judaea.\par The Sadducees are not spoken of at all in the fourth Gospel, where the Pharisees are frequently mentioned (John 7:32,45; 11:47,57; 18:3; 8:3,13-19; 9:13); an omission which, as Geiger suggests, is not unimportant in reference to the criticism of the Gospels (ut sup. p. 107). Moreover, while Paul had been a Pharisee and was the soil of a Pharisee, while Josephus was a Pharisee, and the Mishna was a Pharisaical digest of Pharisaical opinions and practices, not a single undoubted writing of an acknowledged Sadducee has come down to us, so that for an acquaintance with their opinions we are mainly dependent on their antagonists. This point should always be borne in mind in judging their opinions and forming an estimate of their character, and its full bearing will be duly appreciated by those who reflect that even at the present day, with all the checks against misrepresentation arising from publicity and the inventiLVAL=on of printing, probably no religious or political party in any country would be content to accept the statements of an opponent as giving a correct view of its opinions.\par III. The Tenets and Practices of the Sadducees. \emdash To apprehend duly the doctrines and usages of this sect, it must be borne in mind that the Sadducees were the aristocratic and conservative priestly party, who clung to their ancient prerogatives and resisted every innovation which the ever-shifting circumstances of the commonwealth demanded; while their opponents, the Pharisees, were the liberals, the representatives of the people their principle being so to develop and modify the Mosaic law as to adapt it to the requirements of the time, and to make the people at large realize that they were "a people of priests, a holy nation." Thus, standing immovably upon the ancient basis, the Sadducees, whose differences were at first chiefly political, afterwards extended these differences to doctrinal, legal, and ritual questions.\par A. Political Opinions. \emdash The primary political difference between the two sects was that the Sadducees maintained that a man's destiny is in his own hands, and that human ingenuity and statecraft are therefore to be resorted to in political matters; while the Pharisees clung to the conviction that the political relations with foreign nations, like the theocracy at home, are under the immediate control of the holy one of Israel (Josephus, Ant. 13, 5, 9; 18, 1, 4, with War, 2, 8, 14; Mishna, Berachoth, 33 b; Nidah, 16, 72). That the Sadducees, who were the real aristocracy (Josephus, Ant. 18:1, 4) and the successful warriors in the Maccabaean struggles (ibid. 13:16, 2; War, 1, 5, 3), should have espoused such political views was the natural result of their political success. Moreover, the doctrine that what a man possesses is what he deserves was peculiarly gratifying to the successful and aristocratic caste. Besides, in this respect, as in all other matters, the Sadducees showed their conservaLVAL>tism in abiding by the Pentateuchal views that a man is rewarded in this world according to his deeds, and that prosperity and adversity are a test of piety and wickedness (Deut 28, with Ps 37:25).\par B. Doctrinal Views. \emdash \par 1. Rejection of the Oral Law. Foremost among the doctrines of the Sadducees is the tenet that the Hebrew Scriptures, with the authoritative explanations and glosses which developed themselves in the course of time, are the sole rule of faith and practice, thus denying that there existed any orally transmitted law to supplement the written law, to which their opponents the Pharisees laid claim; or, as Josephus states it, "the Pharisees have given to the people many statutes from the traditions of the fathers which are not written in the law of Moses; and it is for this reason that the Sadducees reject them, saying that it is only the written observances which are binding, but those which are transmitted by the fathers are not to be observed" (Ant. 13:10, 6). For the better understanding of this important question, it must be remarked that the Pharisees and the orthodox Jews to the present day have an oral law in addition to the written law. This oral law consists of sundry religious, ceremonial, and social practices which obtained in the course of time, and which were called forth either through the obscurity, conciseness, and apparent contradiction of some of the written enactments, or through the inapplicability of some of the Mosaic statutes to the ever changing circumstances of the commonwealth. Some of the enactments contained in this oral code are undoubtedly as old as the original laws which they supplement and explain, so as to adapt them to exceptional cases not specified in the Mosaic law; others, again, were introduced by the spiritual heads of the nation after the return from the Babylonian captivity, because the altered state of the nation absolutely required these regulations, although there was no basis in the Mosaic law for them; while others originatedLVAL? in party feeling, to shield the pious against even approaching the limits of transgression. Now the Sopherim (i.e. scribes and the lawyers), after the Babylonian captivity, who found this accumulated traditional code, tried to classify and arrange it. Those practices which could be deduced from or introduced into the text of Holy Writ by analogy, combination, or otherwise, were regarded as the legitimate and authoritative traditional exposition of the law, See MIDDASH; while those practices which obtained in the course of time, which were venerated and esteemed by the people aoth for their antiquity and utility, but for which neither author nor apparent reason could be found in the written law, were denominated A traditional law of Moses from Sinai (<START HEBREW>ynsm h?ml hklh<END HEBREW>\par ), because from their antiquity and importance it was thought that they must have come down orally from the lawgiver himself. It is this oral law which the Sadducees rejected; and in their conservatism they adhered to the ancient Hebrew Scriptures, as well as to those time-honored explanations and practices (<START HEBREW>twklh<END HEBREW>\par ) which were not at variance with the text of the Bible. It must be distinctly borne in mind that by their rejecting traditions is not meant that the Sadducees rejected all the traditional comments upon the law and the ancestral practices not found in the Bible. Even the Talmud itself only charges them with rejecting some things (Sanhedrin, 33 b; Horajoth, 4 a), and there is but little doubt that those practices which they rejected were originated by the Pharisees, the liberal party whose innovations the conservative Sadducees disliked, and regarded as an encroachment upon their priestly and aristocratic rights. In the Mishna specific points of difference between the Pharisees and Sadducees are mentioned, which are unimportant \emdash such, e.g., as whether touching the Holy Scriptures made the hands technically "unclean," in the Levitical sense, and whether the streamLVAL@ which flows when water is poured from a clean vessel into an unclean one is itself technically "clean" or "unclean" (Yadaim, 4:6, 7). If the Pharisees and Sadducees had differed on all matters not directly contained in the Pentateuch, it would scarcely have been necessary to particularize points of difference such as these, which to Christians imbued with the genuine spirit of Christ's teaching (Matt 15:11: Luke 11:37-40) must appear so trifling as almost to resemble the products of a diseased imagination. Indeed, it will be seen in the course of this article, from the enumeration of their distinctive tenets, that the theological views of the two sects were not so much at variance as might have been supposed, and that the Sadducees in many cases actually adhered to ancient traditions, while the Pharisees abandoned these traditions and introduced new statutes in order to raise the people, whose true representatives they were, to a nation of kings and priests. See TRADITION.\par That the Sadducees also rejected the prophets and Hagiographa, and only believed in the Pentateuch, as is asserted by Epiphanius (Adversus Hoereses, 14), Origen (Cels. 1, 49), Jerome (Comment. on Matth. 22:31-33), and followed by some modern writers, is utterly at variance with the Jewish records of this sect, and has evidently arisen from a confusion of the Sadducees with the Samaritans.\par 2. Denial of the Resurrection, etc. \emdash Next in importance in point of doctrine is their eschatology. The Sadducees denied that the dead will rise to receive their reward and punishment. Josephus, who specifies this second cardinal difference between the Pharisees and the Sadducees, describes their respective doctrines of a future reward and punishment in such a manner as to infer that the former, believing in a future judgment, also believed in the immortality of the soul; while the latter, by denying a future judgment, also denied the survival of the soul after the death of the body (<START GREEK>\par Yuxh=$ te th\\n diamonh\\n kLVALAai\\ ta\\$ kaq) a%|dou timwri/a$ kai\\ tima\\$ a)nairouai=<END GREEK>\par [War, 2, 8, 14]). In another place, again, where this historian mentions the distinctive eschatological views of the Sadducees, he plainly says, "Their doctrine is that souls perish with the bodies" (<START GREEK>\par Saddoukai/oi$ de\\ ta\\$ yuxa\\$ o( lo/go$ sunafani/zei toi=$ sw/masi<END GREEK>\par [Ant. 18:1, 4]). But in the Talmud and in the New Test. we are told that they simply denied the resurrection (comp. Sanhedrin, 90 b with Luke 20:27; Mark 12:18; see also Matt 22:23), which by no means involves the immortality of the soul; and it cannot be supposed that if the Sadducees had actually denied the immortality of the soul, so vital a point would be passed over in silence by the Talmudic doctors, when unimportant differences are minutely specified. There can, therefore, be no doubt that Josephus, in his vanity to depict to the Greeks the Jewish sects in such colors as to make them correspond to the different philosophical schools I among the Greeks, did injustice to the Sadducees by assigning to them the doctrines of the Stoics. The misrepresentation of the Sadducees will appear all the more evident when it is born in mind how defectively Josephus describes the Pharisaic eschatology in the very same section. He there represents the Pharisees, who were his own party, as believing that the resurrection is to be confined to the righteous, while the wicked are to be detained in everlasting punishment in Hades under the earth (Ant. 18:1, 3); whereas it is well known that this opinion was only entertained by some of the later doctors, while the Pharisees generally believed in the resurrection of both the righteous and the wicked (Dan 12:2), and this was the common doctrine as late as the second book of Maccabees (comp. 12:40-45). The reason which the Sadducees assigned for not believing in the resurrection of the dead to receive their reward and punishment is that it is not taught in the law of Moses (Sanhedrin, 90 b), whicLVALBh simply promises temporal rewards and punishments for obedience and disobedience (Ex 20:12; 23:25,26; Deut 7:12-15; 28). The very quotation made by our Savior (Matt 22:31,32; Mark 12:26,27; Luke 20:37) of Ex 3:6,15, which it is only natural to suppose is the most cogent text in the law, nevertheless does no more than suggest an inference on this doctrine. The Sadducees, however, did not admit the inference, and they simply regarded this mode of proving the resurrection from the law as Pharisaic, as they were in the habit of hearing similar inferences deduced by the Pharisees from other passages. Thus the Talmud relates: "The Sadducees asked Rabbi Gamaliel, Whence do you know that the holy one, blessed be he, will raise the dead? To which he replied, From the law, the prophets, and the Hagiographa: from the law because it is written, 'And the Lord said to Moses, Behold, thou shalt lie down with thy fathers (<START HEBREW><qw<END HEBREW>\par ), and this people shall rise again' (Deut 31:16): from the prophets because it is written, 'Thy dead men shall live,' etc. (Isa 26:19); and from the Hagiographa because it is written, 'And the roof of thy mouth,' etc. (Song 7:9). The Sadducees, however, would slot accept these passages till he quoted the passage, 'The land which the Lord sware unto your fathers to give it to them' (Deut 11:21). He promised it to them (<START HEBREW><hl<END HEBREW>\par ) \emdash i.e. to the living, and not to the dead; but as they were now dead, it is evident that there will be a resurrection if the promise is to be fulfilled" (Sanhedrin, 90 b).\par We are also told in the New Test. that the Sadducees say that there is "neither angel nor spirit" (Acts 23:8); but this can by no means imply that they altogether denied the existence of angelic and spiritual beings, since the Sadducees were firm believers in the divinity of the Mosaic law, where the appearance of angels is again and again recorded (Gen 16:7; 19:1; 22:11; 28:12; Ex 23:20; Num 22:23 et al.), and neither Josephus nor LVALCthe Talmudic writings charge them with this unbelief. What they denied is the incarnation and manifestation of demoniac powers and angelic beings in later days, as believed and described in the Jewish writings and in the New Test.\par 3. The opinions of the Sadducees respecting the freedom of the will, and the way in which those opinions are treated by Josephus (Ant. 13:5, 9), have been noticed elsewhere. See PHARISEES. It may here be added that possibly the great stress laid by the Sadducees on the freedom of the will may have had some connection with their forming such a large portion of that class from which criminal judges were selected. Jewish philosophers, in their study, although they knew that punishments as an instrument of good were unavoidable, might indulge in reflections that man seemed to be the creature of circumstances, and might regard with compassion the punishments inflicted on individuals whom a wiser moral training and a more happily balanced nature might have made useful members of society. Those Jews who were almost exclusively religious teachers would naturally insist on the inability of man to do anything good if God's Holy Spirit were taken away from him (Ps 51:11,12), and would enlarge on the perils which surrounded man from the temptations of Satan and evil angels or spirits (1 Chron 21:1; Tob 1:3,17). But it is likely that the tendencies of the judicial class would be more practical and direct, and more strictly in accordance with the ideas of the Levitical prophet Ezekiel (Ezek 33:11-19) in a well known passage in which he gives the responsibilitv of bad actions, and seems to attribute the power of performing good actions exclusively to the individual agent. Hence the sentiment of the lines,\par "Our acts our angels are, or good or ill,\par Our fatal shadows that walk by us still," \par would express that portion of truth on which the Sadducees, in inflicting punishments, would dwell with most emphasis; and as, in some sense, they disbelieved in angels, these lines haLVALDve a peculiar claim to be regarded as a correct exponent of Sadducaean thought. Yet perhaps, if writings were extant in which the Sadducees explained their own ideas, we might find that they reconciled these principles, as we may be certain that Ezekiel did, with other passages apparently of a different import in the Old Test., and that the line of demarcation between them and the Pharisees was not, in theory, so very sharply marked as the account of Josephus would lead us to suppose.\par C. Legal Matters. \emdash \par 1. The Sadducees restricted the Levirate law to cases of betrothal (<START HEBREW>hswra<END HEBREW>\par ), but denied its obligation when the marriage was consummated (<START HEBREW>haw?n<END HEBREW>\par ). Thus, for instance, though they regarded a betrothed woman (<START HEBREW>hswra<END HEBREW>\par ) as a wife, and treated her as a married woman in accordance with the Mosaic legislation, See MARRIAGE, yet, when her betrothed husband died without cohabiting with her, his surviving brother could perform the duty of Levir without committing incest, as she was still a virgin. In this respect, too, the Sadducees, as the erudite Geiger has shown, followed the ancient Levirate law, which is based upon Gen 38:7-10, and which \emdash inferring from the similarity of expression used in ver. 7 and 10, that Er too had acted wickedly and not properly consummated the marriage with Tamar \emdash enacted that the Levir is only then to perform the duty towards his deceased brother when the marriage has not been consummated (Yebamoth, 34 b; Bereshith Rabba, 85; Geiger, Judische Zeitschrift [Breslau, 1862], 1, 30, etc.). It is to be remarked that the Samaritans of old restricted the Levirate law (Deut 25:5, etc.) in the same manner, and that the Talmud which records it tells us that in support of this restriction the Samaritans appealed to the expression <START HEBREW>hxwjh<END HEBREW>\par , which they translated outer, and regarded as the adjective of <START HEBREW>tmh t?a<END HEBREW>\par , LVALEconstruing it with the preceding <START HEBREW>hyjt al<END HEBREW>\par , while they took <START HEBREW>rz? yal<END HEBREW>\par as explicative of the preceding by way of repetition, translating the whole passage "The wife of the deceased who is outside (i.e. the consummation of the marriage) is not to be for another man" (Jerusalem Yebamoth. 1, 6; Kirchheim, Karme Shomron, p. 36). The Karaites, who may be regarded as modern Sadducees, explain the Levirate law in the same manner. This restriction of the Levirate law on the part of the Sadducees imparts additional force to the incident recorded in the Gospels (Matt 22:23, etc.; Mark 12:18, etc.; Luke 20:27, etc.). Here we are told that the Sadducees, not believing in a resurrection, put the following question to our Savior: The first of seven brothers married a wife and died childless, whereupon the second brother performed the duty of Levir, and he too died without issue; then the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh brother successively performed the duty of Levir, so that she alternately became the wife of seven husbands now, whose wife is she to be at the resurrection? With the restricted application of the Levirate law before us, it will be seen that though this ironical question was chiefly directed against the doctrine of the resurrection, yet it at the same time also attacks the orthodox Pharisaic view of the Levirate law which was undoubtedly shared by our Savior. What the Sadducees thereby say is, as Geiger rightly remarks, that according to their application of the Levirate law, which restricts it to the betrothed woman (<START HEBREW>hswra<END HEBREW>\par ), apart from the extremely rare occurrence of death between the betrothal and connubial intercourse (<START HEBREW>haw?n<END HEBREW>\par ), especially several times under similar circumstances, the relation of the woman to her last husband who consummated the marriage is far more intimate than to any of the other husbands to whom she was simply betrothed. Supposing, therefore, for LVALFargument's sake, that there will be a resurrection, and that the woman will rise with all the seven brothers, no difficulty will be experienced according to the restricted application of this law, inasmuch as she will be the wife of the last husband who alone consummated the marriage. According to the Pharisaic practice, however, the Levirs have to marry the widow after the marriage has been consummated, so that she is the real wife of all the seven brothers; hence the ironical question put to our Savior, "According to the Pharisaic doctrine of the Levirate law, in which you believe, the difficulty will be to decide whose wife she is to be."\par 2. The ceremony of taking of the shoe (<START HEBREW>hxylj<END HEBREW>\par ), in case the surviving brother refuses to perform the duty of Levir towards the widow of his deceased brother, is explained most rigidly by the Sadducees insisting upon the letter of the law, that the rejected widow is to spit into the man's face (<START HEBREW>wynpb<END HEBREW>\par , Deut 25:9); while the Pharisees, adapting the law to the requirements of the time, regarded the spitting before his face as satisfying the demands of the injunction, and hence explained the passage accordingly (Taanith, 4).\par 3. The same conservatism and rigor the Sadducees manifested in the right of retaliation, insisting upon the literal carrying out of the law, "eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot," etc. (Ex 21:23; etc.); while the Pharisees, with a due regard for the interests of the people, maintained that pecuniary compensation is sufficient (Baba Kama, 53 b; 34 a, b; Taanith, 4:2).\par 4. For the same reason the Sadducees also insisted upon the literal explanation of the law in Deut 19:21, maintaining that false witnesses are only then to be executed when the sentence of the falsely accused had actually been carried out, in which case alone the words "life for life" receive their literal fulfilment; whereas the Pharisees concluded, from Deut 19:19, that if they are foLVALund out, even before the sentence has been carried out, they are to be executed; for it is there said, "Ye shall do unto him as he intended to do unto his brother." Hence the intention is to be visited with capital punishment (Mishna, Maccoth, 1, 6; Tosiphta Sanhedrin, 6).\par 5. The law of inheritance formed another distinctive feature of the Sadducees. According to the Mosaic law, the son alone is the rightful heir; and in case there is no son, the daughter inherits the father's property (Num 27:1-11). Now, the Sadducees maintained that in case the son, who is the heir presumptive, has sisters, and he dies, leaving a daughter, the property is not to go entirely to his female issue, but that the deceased's sisters are to have an equal share with his issue, urging that the deceased son's daughter is only the second degree, while his sisters are the first degree. The Pharisees, on the contrary, maintained that the deceased brother's daughter is the rightful and sole heir, inasmuch as she is the descendant of the male heir, whose simple existence disinherited his sisters (Mishna, Baba Bathra, 8:1; Babylonian Baba Bathra, 115 b; 116; Taanith, 5, 2.\par 6. From the law that the owner of cattle is responsible for damages done by his animals (Ex 21:28,29), the Sadducees maintained that a master is responsible for damages done by his slave, submitting that he is far more answerable for him than his cattle, inasmuch as he is to watch over his moral conduct. The Pharisees, on the other hand, denied this, submitting that the slave is a rational, and hence a responsible, creature; and that if the master be held answerable for his conduct, the dissatisfied slave might, out of spite, commit ravages in order to make his master pay (Mishna, Yadaim, 4:7).\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVALhH{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 D. Ritual Questions. \emdash \par 1. The first important distinction in this department to be mentioned is the great stress which the Sadducees laid on the ritual purity of the person of the officiating priest. He had to keep aloof from the very appearance of uncleanness. Hence they required that the burning of the red heifer, from the ashes of which the water of absolution was prepared, should not be performed by any priest who had been defiled, although he had immersed, because he does not become undefiled before sunset (<START HEBREW>?m? ybrwum<END HEBREW>\par ). The Pharisees, on the other hand, disregarding the person and regarding the thing, opposed this great ado about the aristocratic priest. "They prepared a baptistry on the Mount of Olives, where the burning of the red heifer took place, and designedly defiled the priest who was to burn it, so that the Sadducees should not be able to say that the heifer is not to be prepared by such as had not become pure by the sun-setting" (Mishna, Para, 3, 7).\par 2. The Sadducees, again, did not believe that the sacred vessels in the Temple are to be subjected to the strict laws of Levitical purity, which the Pharisees stoutly maintained. So strict were their views on this subject that the Pharisees had all the sacred vessels immersed at the conclusion of every festival, because some unclean priest might have touched them. Hence, when the Pharisees, on one occasion, immersed s even the golden candlestick after a festivity, the Sadducees tauntingly exclaimed, "Behold, the Pharisees will at last also purify the sun!" (Jerusalem Chagiga, 79 d). That the Pharisees should have thus guarded the sanctity of the vessels against the possible touch of a defiled priest must have been all the more annoying to the priestly Sadducees, since in other things which diLVALId not affect this aristocratic fraternity, but conduced to the comfort of the people at large, the Pharisees were less rigorous with regard to the laws of Levitical purity than the Sadducees, as may be seen from the following instance.\par 3. The Sadducees interpreted the injunction in Lev 11:39,40 most rigidly, maintaining that it is not only the carcass of an animal which died a natural death that defiles by touching it, but also its sundry parts, such as the skin, bones, sinews, etc.; while the Pharisees restricted this defilement by contact simply to the flesh, except the parts of a dead human body, and of a few reptiles, in which the skin and the flesh are, to a certain extent, identical.\par 4. As a necessary and vital consequence of the foregoing view, the Sadducees maintained that the skin and the other parts of an animal not legally slaughtered \emdash i.e. both of all those animals which the law permits to be eaten when legally slaughtered, but which have died a natural death, and of those which the law does not permit to be eaten \emdash are not allowed to be made into different articles of use; and that leather, parchment, or any other of the numerous articles made from the skin, bones, veins, etc., is defiling. This rigid view obliged the Sadducees to explain Lev 7:24 in an unnatural manner, by taking the expression <START HEBREW>hlbn<END HEBREW>\par to denote an animal approaching the condition of becoming a carcass \emdash i.e. being so weak that it must soon expire \emdash and to urge that an animal in such a condition may be slaughtered before it breathes its last. In such a case, though its flesh is a defiling carcass, and must not be eaten, the fat, skin, bones, etc., may be used for divers purposes (Jerusalem Megilla, 1, 9; Babylon Sabbath, 108 a). The Pharisees, on the other hand, as the representatives of the people, whose interests they had at heart, allowed the sundry parts of such animals to be used as materials for different utensils. They even allowed the Sacred ScriLVALJptures, the phylacteries, and the mezuzah (q.v.) to be written on parchment prepared from the skin of an animal which either died a natural death or was torn by wild beasts, but not on parchment prepared from the skin of an unclean animal (ibid. and Torah ad init.; Sopherim ad init.). Bearing in mind this difference of opinion, we shall understand the import of the two discussions, recorded in the Mishna, between the Sadducees and the Pharisees, based thereupon. The Sadducees, we are told, said, "We complain of you Pharisees because you say the Sacred Scriptures, when touched, defile the hands, but the books of Homer do not defile the hands." Jochanan ben-Zakkai said, "And have we nothing else to object to the Pharisees but this? Do they not also assert that the bones of an ass are clean, but that the bones of Jochanan the highpriest are unclean?" (Yadaim, 4:6). Now, according to the Sadducees, contact with sacred things, so far from defiling, actually sanctified; while the Pharisees, in order to guard the sacred things against contact, ordained that contact with such holy things defiles. On the other hand, the Sadducees regarded the touching of foreign books as defiling, because they are written upon parchment made from skins of unclean animals, or of clean animals not legally slaughtered, which, with them, were like carcasses, and which, as we have seen, the Pharisees did not admit. Hence the charge of the Sadducees that the Pharisees assign a superiority to profane books over the Sacred Scriptures, which Jochanan ben-Zakkai rebuts by ironically enhancing this charge, and saying that this is not the only accusation against the Pharisees, inasmuch as he shows thereby a similar consequence arising from Pharisaic views. The bones of a dead man, he submits, are unclean, according to the express declaration of the Bible, even if they happen to be the bones of such a man as John Hyrcanus, the patron of the Sadducees; whereas the bones of an animal, even if it be unclean, and such a contemptible one as an LVALKass, are clean; tlulls showing that the defiling power of an object does not always betoken a degradation in its nature, but, on the contrary, because it is of an elevating nature, therefore it defiles more easily. The other discussion, also arising from this difference of opinion is recorded in the Talmud, where the law of the Pharisaic sages is recorded, that the Sacred Scriptures, the phylacteries, and the mezuzah may be written upon parchment prepared from the skin of an animal which died a natural death, but not from an unclean beast. Whereupon a Boethusian [=Sadducee] asked Rabbi Joshua Ha-Garsi, "Where can you show that the phylacteries are not to be written on the skin of an unclean animal?" R. Joshua. "Because it is written [Ex 13:9, where the phylacteries are enjoined] that the law of the Lord be in thy mouth; that is to say, prepared from animals allowed to be put into the mouth." The Sadducee. "But, according to this, they ought not to be written on the skin of an animal which died or was torn [because these, too, must be put into the mouth, or be eaten]." To which he replied, "I will tell thee a parable, to show the distinction between the two: Two men are guilty of death; one is killed by the king himself, and the other by the executioner. Whose lot is preferable?" Reply. "That one's whom the king executed." [So is the carcass of a clean animal killed by the hand of the King of kings to be preferred to the unclean animal which is already stamped with defilement while alive.] "But, according to this," said the Sadducee, "the carcass ought also to be eaten." To this he replied, "The law says ye shall not eat of anything that died [Deut 14:21]; and sayest thou that it should be eaten?" To this the Sadducee replied, "Bravo!" (<START HEBREW>swlaq<END HEBREW>\par = <START GREEK>\par kalw=$<END GREEK>\par [Sabbath, 108 a]).\par 5. The Sadducees, who stood upon their priestly dignity and ancient prerogatives, rejected the artificial mode of amalgamating the distances (<START HEBREW>wymwhntLVALL bwryu<END HEBREW>\par ): introduced by the Pharisees to enable the members of their order to walk beyond the Sabbath day's journey without infringing on the sanctity of the day, so as to join the social meal which was instituted in imitation of the priestly social repast. See PHARISEES; See SABBATH DAY'S JOURNEY.\par 6. As priests, the Sadducees were not subject to the stringent Sabbatical laws, and could therefore enjoy their meals comfortably, inasmuch as they regarded the work requisite for their preparation as part of their sacerdotal duties, which set aside the Sabbatic regulations; whereas upon the people they imposed the most rigorous observance. Thus, in accordance with Ex 25:3, they insisted that lights must not be kindled on Sabbath eve. and that the supper should be eaten in the dark (Sabbath, 55 b; Rashi, on Tosiphta in Sabbath, ibid.; Maimonides, Yad Hachezaka, Hilchoth Sabbath, 6:1; Tanchuma, 58); they prohibited the eating of any food which was either kept warm since the preparation day (<START HEBREW>tb? bru<END HEBREW>\par ), or was warmed on the Sabbath (Responses of the Gaonim, called Shaare Teshuba, No. 34); and forbade connubial intercourse because, of the exertion connected therewith, and of its not being holy work, according to Ex 19:10,15 (comp. Baba Kama, 82 a).\par 7. The Sadducees, who, as the priestly party, regarded the Temple treasury as their own, demanded that the daily morning and evening sacrifices should be procured from the private and voluntary gifts of each individual, basing their opinion upon the expression of the law (Num 28:4); while the Pharisees, on the other hand, also basing their opinion upon the letter of the law (ibid. 28:2), and wishing to protect the interests of the people, maintained that the sacrifices were national, and that they ought to be procured with the money of the Temple treasury. Accordingly, the Pharisees ordered a special Temple tax, which was collected every spring, and deposited in three distinct boxes in, the Temple treasury, onLVALM which was indicated that the money therein contained was destined for the sacrifices for all Israel. The required money was taken out of the boxes three times a year \emdash on the three great festivals, i.e. on the feast of Passover, Pentecost, and Tabernacles. From the first box it was taken with the announcement that it was "in the name of the whole land of Israel;" from the second, with the express declaration, "in the name of its surrounding cities;" and from the third, "in the name of Babylon, in the name of Media, and in the name of the distant countries generally;" so that all the Israelites, including even those who did not contribute to this tax, were represented in this daily sacrifice (Shekalim, 3, 1-3; Maimonides, Shekalim). So hotly was this point contested between them that it lasted eight days (Nisan, 1-8, year not mentioned), and that the Pharisees, to mark their victory over the Sadducees, appointed these eight days half festivals, during which no mourning should take place (Menachoth, p. 65 a).\par 8. Regarding the sacrifices as their own, or as belonging to their priestly party, the Sadducees maintained that the priests might eat of the meat-offerings which were connected with the free will animal sacrifices (Num 15:2, etc.); while the Pharisees maintained that they must be burned on the altar, and carried their opinion into a law, for which reason they again instituted a half festival in commemoration of their victory.\par 9. Taking the expression <START HEBREW>tb?h trhmm<END HEBREW>\par (Lev 23:11,15,16) literally, the Sadducees maintained that the Omer ought to be offered on the first day following the weekly Sabbath; so that the feast of Pentecost is always to be on the first day of the week (Mishna, Menachoth, 10:3; Gemara on the same, 65 a; Taanith, 1, 1). See PENTECOST.\par 10. The Sadducees rejected the old custom of pouring water on the altar every day at the morning sacrifice during the feast of Tabernacles (<START HEBREW><ymhiwsyn<END HEBREW>\par ); and so opposeLVALNd were they to this ceremony that it became the cause of separation between the Sadducaean king Alexander Jannseus and the Pharisees (Succa, 48 b, with Josephus, Ant. 13:13, 5; Gratz, Geschichte der Juden, 3, 473, 2 d ed.).\par 11. They also objected to the procession of the people round the altar holding willow branches in their hands on the feast of Tabernacles (Yoma, 43 b). See TABERNACLES, FEAST OF.\par 12. They maintained that the incense which the high priest was to carry into the holy of holies on the great day of atonement ought to be kindled outside, and thus to be carried into the sanctuary; because they deemed it improper to do work in the presence of the Lord, and because it was more in accordance with the words <START HEBREW>trpkh lu hara /nub yk<END HEBREW>\par (Lev 16:2), which they interpreted to mean "only in the cloud" (i.e. rising from the burning incense) "will I be seen on the cover." The cloud thus arising from the burning incense was to conceal the manifested Deity, whereas if the high priest were to enter before this cloud began to ascend, he would see God and die. The Pharisees considered this as violating the express command of the text, which plainly requires that the frankincense should be put on the burning coals in the holy of holies. So particular were they about it that they exacted an oath from the high priest, before the Day of Atonement, to perform everything in strict accordance with their enactments (Siphra, Pericope <START HEBREW>twm yrja<END HEBREW>\par , 3; Jerusalem Yonma, 1, 5; Babylon Yoma, 19 b, 53 a).\par 13. Though admitting that Ex 13:6 enjoins phylacteries, the Sadducees rejected the Pharisaic regulations about the making and weaving of them (Sanhedrin, 88 b; Maimonides, Yad Hachezaka, Hilchoth Tephillin, 4:3). See PHYLACTERY.\par 14. Based upon the law that a lying in woman is not to touch holy things nor to go into the Temple during the thirty-three days following the first seven days after the birth of a boy, and during the sixty-six days folloLVALOwing the first fourteen days after the birth of a girl (Lev 12:2-8), the Sadducees maintained that this law excludes the woman from the enjoyment of her connubial rights all these days; while the Pharisees, who always endeavored to relieve the people as much as possible from the burden of the law, did not transfer the holiness of the things and of the Temple to the persons, thus granting to the wife and to the husband the enjoyment of their rights. Hence, while they held every other appearance of blood in the woman as defiling, they regarded it, in this instance, as the effects of the birth, and as pure blood (<START HEBREW>hrhf ymd<END HEBREW>\par ). It is for this reason that the <START HEBREW>h<END HEBREW>\par in <START HEBREW>hrhf<END HEBREW>\par (Lev 12:4,5) has not the Mappik, thus denoting pure blood, as the present Masoretic text is the Pharisaic text; and that the rendering of it in the A.V. by "the blood of her purifying, " though agreeing with the Sadduceean text, which is undoubtedly the original one, is at variance with the textus receptus (comp. Geiger, He-Chaluz, 5, 29; 6, 28 sq.; Judische Zeitschrift, 1, 51; 2, 27, etc.).\par It must not, however, be concluded that these are the only distinctive features of the Sadducees, although not many more are mentioned by their opponents, the Pharisees.\par IV. History of the Sadducees. \emdash \par 1. Their Origin. \emdash The oldest record pretending to describe the source of this sect (<START HEBREW>/tn ybrd twba<END HEBREW>\par .) is the commentary of Rabbi Nathan Ha-Babli (q.v.) on the tractate of the Mishna entitled Aboth (<START HEBREW>twba<END HEBREW>\par ) = the Moral Sayings of the Ancient Fathers. In this commentary on the saying of Antigonus of Soho (B.C. 200-170) \emdash "Be not like servants who serve their master for the sake of receiving wages, but be like servants who serve their master without expecting to receive wages, and let the fear of the Lord be upon you" (Mishna, Aboth, 1, 3) \emdash Rabbi Nathan remarks asLVALP follows: "Antigonus of Soho had two disciples who propounded his maxim; they taught it to their disciples, and their disciples, again, taught it to their disciples. Thereupon they began to examine it after them, and said, 'What did our fathers purport to teach by this maxim? Is the laborer to work all day, and not receive his wages in the evening? Surely, if our fathers had known that there is another world, and believed in a resurrection of the dead, they would not have spoken thus.' They then separated themselves from the law, and two sects arose from them \emdash the Zadokites [= Sadducees] and the Boethusians. The Zadokites are called after Zadok, and the Boethusians after Boethus. They used vessels of silver and vessels of gold all their days, not because they were proud, but because the Sadducees said that the Pharisees had a tradition that they are to afflict themselves in this world, and yet they have nothing in the world to come" (Aboth di Rabbi Nathan, cap. 5). That Zadok and Boethus were contemporaries of Antigonus of Soho, that they opposed the doctrines of the sages, and that the sages ordained laws to obviate the cavils of their opponents, is also declared by Saadia Gaon (q.v.) ( A.D. 892-942). Thus Isaac Israeli tells us: "Saadia says, the contemporaries and the tribunal of Antigonus of Soho ordained it as a law that the beginning of the month is to be determined by the appearance of the new moon, to do away with the cavils of Zadok and Boethus, who disputed against the sages about the fixing of the new moon" (Yesod Olam, 4:6, p. 9 [ed. Berlin, 1848]). Similar in import to Rabbi Nathan's statement on Aboth, 1, 3 is the remark of Maimonides ( A.D. 1135-1204) on the same passage. "Antigoams," says this great authority, "had two disciples, one named Zadok and the other Boethus, who, when they heard this sage propound this maxim, left him, saying one to the other, the Rabbi distinctly declares that there is neither a future state of reward and punishment, nor any hope for man \emdash becLVALQause they misunderstood his maxim. Thereupon they strengthened each other's hands, separated themselves from the congregation, and left the observance of the law, when one sect followed the one, and another sect followed the other, whom the sages respectively called the Zadokites and the Boethusians" (Commenet. on Aboth, 1, 3). It must be added that the greatest Jewish authorities since the 9 th century of the Christian era have regarded Zadok and Boethus as the heretical leaders who originated two sects. Modern critics, however, reject this current account of the origin of the Sadducees from Zadok and Boethus, the disciples of Antigonus of Soho, as unhistorical, because (a) it is not mentioned either in Josephus, the Mishna, or the Gemara; (b) the original account of Rabbi Nathan neither says that Zadok and Boethus themselves misunderstood Antigonus's maxim, nor that they were the chiefs of these sects, but that their disciples misinterpreted the import of the maxim, and separated themselves from the congregation; and (c) it is illogical to suppose that the disciples of Zadok, who, according to Rabbi Nathan's account, did not misunderstand Antigonus, but simply continued to propound his master maxim, would call themselves, or be called, Zadokites=Sadducees, and not Antigonites, seeing that the maxim belongs to Antigonus and not to Zadok. The second and third reasons, however, are of little value, since the present text of Rabbi Nathan's Aboth is obscure, and since Saadia Gaon, the Aruch, Maimonides, and all the ancient Jewish authorities who lived centuries ago, and who had better means of procuring correct codices, understood the passage to mean, and also derived it from independent sources, that Zadok and Boethus themselves misunderstood their master Antigonus, and that they were the originators of the sects. It is the first reason which, coupled with the fact that the oldest records are perfectly silent about Zadok and Boethus as disciples of Antigonus, goes far to show that the passage in the AboLVALRth of Rabbi Nathan, like many other pieces in the same work, is by a later hand; and that its author, who most probably flourished towards the end of the 7 th century, though possessing the right information that the Zadokites and Boethusians were the followers of Zadok and Boethus, misstated the fact by making these two chiefs, who lived at different times, contemporaries, and by describing them as disciples of Antigonus. This mistake is all the more natural since the real and essential differences between the Sadducees and the Pharisees actually began to develop themselves in the time of Antigonus; and it is not at all improbable that, though the Sadducees, as we shall presently see, derived their early sentiments and distinctive name from a much older leader named Zadok, a distinguished descendant of that leader, bearing the same name, may have lived in the time of Antigonus, and may have contributed greatly to the final separation of the Sadducees from the Pharisees.\par 2. Development of the Sect. \emdash We have seen from their tenets and practices that the Sadducees were the ancient priestly aristocracy, and that they persisted in maintaining their conservative notions, as well as in retaining their pristine prerogatives, against the voice of the people. It is therefore natural, in tracing their origin, to look for a leader among the priests themselves, as their strong conservative sentiments would, as a matter of course, make them center around a representative and a name of their own caste celebrated in the records of the Sacred Scriptures. Such a chief, answering all the conditions required, we find, as Geiger has elaborately shown, in the eminent priest Zadok, the tenth in descent from the high priest Aaron, who declared for the succession of Solomon to the throne when Abiathar took the part of Adonijah (1 Kings 1:32-45), and whose line of descendants, or "house" as it is termed in the Bible, henceforth retained a pre-eminence in the future history of the Jewish people. Thus when HezekiahLVALS put a question to the priests and Levites generally, the answer was given by Azariah, "the chief-priest of the house of Zadok" (2 Chron 31:10); and Ezekiel, in his prophetic vision of the future temple, pre-eminently distinguishes "the sons of Zadok," and "the priests and the Levites of the seed of Zadok," as the faithful guardians of the Lord's sanctuary when the children of Israel went astray (Ezek 40:46; 43:19; 44:15; 48:11). When the Jews returned from the Babylonian captivity, this sacerdotal aristocracy, and especially the "priests of the seed of Zadok," the "sons of Zadok," or, which comes to the same thing, "the Zadokites" = Sadducees, naturally continued to form the center of the newly formed state, and to be the time-honored guardians both of God's sacred heritage and their holy religion. The high priests were also the chief functionaries of state. Their maxim, however, that statecraft and ingenuity are to be employed in political transactions with foreign nations, as well as the conduct of the chiefs among this sacerdotal aristocracy based upon this maxim, threatened to destroy both the nationality and the religion of the Jews. Hellenism \emdash which gradually found its way into Judaea after its occupation by Alexander the Great \emdash Grecian sports, and political alliances with the heathen, were advocated by the highest of the land, and openly espoused by multitudes (1 Macc 1:11-15). The very high priest, who hitherto was the center of religion, did all he could to denationalize the people of his charge (2 Macc 4:1-19). The people, who saw their sanctuary ravished by the Syrians while their aristocracy were engaged in their ruinous statecraft, became embittered against both the foreigners abroad and the rulers at home. We cannot do better than continue the description of the Sadducees in the powerful words of Geiger: "It was then that a pliable priestly family made itself the hand and the mouthpiece of this discontent; it conquered and crushed the foreign sway, overthrew the governinLVALTg families at home, and assumed the pre-eminence. But the aristocracy soon surrounded the new sun of the Maccabees, and the Zadokites, who themselves had hitherto been the sun, now became its satellites, as Sadducees. The party struggle increased with continued success to the Pharisees. The internal struggles, however, made the interference of the Romans easy, and paved the way of the keenly ambitious Herod to the throne. He was neither a priest nor a born Israelite; but, like all upstarts, he was anxious to ally himself with the ancient aristocracy. His connection with Mariamne supported a Maccabaean family in the court itself, which, in opposition thereunto, had popular sympathies because it had its root among the people in consequence of its celebrated past; hence the eternal court intrigues and the consequent brutalities. It was for this reason that Herod sought for another alliance with the sacerdotal aristocracy which should both legitimatize him and be his faithful followers, and which he, on his part, would raise by being connected with the sovereign. For this purpose he selected the family of Boethus, a sacerdotal family to whom the functions of the high priesthood did not belong. He married the daughter of Simon Boethus, whom he made high priest. Thus was a new high aristocracy created, which, being of ancient aristocratic blood, was blended with the high aristocracy, but which, nevertheless, owed its elevation to the sovereign, and was allied to his house. These were the Boethusians. Their double character, being both upstarts and yet claiming to be ancient aristocracy, enhanced their arrogance" (uidische Zeitschrift, 2, 34 sq.). They are the Herodians, and for this reason are alternately called Herodians and Sadducees in the New Test. (comp. Matt 16:6 with Mark 8:15). Thus we are told that the Pharisees took counsel with the Herodians, i.e. with the Boethusian branch of the Sadducees \emdash how they might destroy Jesus (Mark 3:6), as these Herodians, from their alliance with the reigningLVALU dynasty, had the temporal power for their aid. Again, in Mark 11:1 27; 12:13, it is stated that the chief priests, the scribes, and the elders, sent unto Jesus certain of the Pharisees and of the Herodians to catch him in his words; and after they had conjointly put to him the question about the tribute \emdash money (Mark 12:14-17), each of the representatives of the two sects \emdash i.e. of the Sadducees and the Pharisees \emdash tried to entrap him with questions in harmony with their sectarian tenets. Accordingly, the Sadducean portion of the deputation, which are called in ver. 13 Herodians and in ver. 19 Sadducees, came forward first and asked him the question about the seven brothers, which bore upon the Sadducean doctrine of the resurrection and the Levirate law (Mark 12:19-27). When they were silenced, one of the scribes - i.e. of the Pharisaic portion of the deputation \emdash who was pleased with the manner in which Jesus put down the cavils of the Herodians, came forward and tried to entangle our Savior with a question from a Pharisaic point of view (Marks 12:28-37). The reason why our Savior, who so frequently rebuked the extravagances of some of the Pharisees, did not expose the doctrines of the Sadducees is that at his advent their tenets had been thoroughly refuted by their opponents the Pharisees; and that although, through their alliance with the court, they wielded the temporal arm (Acts 5:17), they exercised no religious influence whatever upon the mass of the Jewish people, with whom the Pharisees were all in all (Joseph. Ant. 13, 10, 5). But even their political influence soon ceased, for with the destruction of the Jewish state by the Romans the Sadducees lost their temporal significance; and though their doctrines continued to be held by a small fraction of the dispersed Jews, yet they were deemed of so little influence that Jehudah the Holy (163-193), in his redaction of the Mishna, only rarely and sparingly takes notice of the different opinions upon the various Jewish LVALVenactments held by the Sadducees and the Boethusians. It is for this reason that the Sadducees are also mentioned so little in the Talmud and the Midrashim, and that their origin was forgotten in the 7 th century, when the above-quoted passage relating to their rise was introduced into the Aboth of Rabbi Nathan. \par 3. Their Eventual Fate. \emdash The fact of the rapid disappearance of the Sadducees from history after the 1 st century, and the subsequent predominance among the Jews of the opinions of the Pharisees, remains to be considered. Two circumstances indirectly but powerfully contributed to produce this result: 1 st, the state of the Jews after the capture of Jerusalem by Titus; and, 2 d, the growth of the Christian religion. As to the first point it is difficult to overestimate the consternation and dismay which the destruction of Jerusalem occasioned in the minds of sincerely religious Jews. Their holy city was in ruins; their holy and beautiful Temple, the center of their worship and their love, had been ruthlessly burned to the ground, and not one stone of it was left upon another; their magnificent hopes, either of an ideal king who was to restore the empire of David, or of a Son of Man who was to appear to them in the clouds of heaven, seemed to them for a while like empty dreams; and the whole visible world was, to their imagination, black with desolation and despair. In this their hour of darkness and anguish, they naturally turned to the consolations and hopes of a future state; and the doctrine of the Sadducees that there was nothing beyond the present life would have appeared to them cold, heartless, and hateful. Again, while they were sunk in the lowest depths of depression, a new religion which they despised as a heresy and a superstition, of which one of their own nation was the object, and another the unrivalled missionary to the heathen, was gradually making its way among the subjects of their detested conquerors, the Romans. One of the causes of its success was undoubtedly LVALWthe vivid belief in the resurrection of Jesus, and a consequent resurrection of all mankind, which was accepted by its heathen converts with a passionate earnestness, of which those who at the present day are familiar from infancy with the doctrine of the resurrection of the dead can form only a faint idea. To attempt to check the progress of this new religion among the Jews by an appeal to the temporary rewards and punishments of the Pentateuch would have been as idle as an endeavor to check an explosive power by ordinary mechanical restraints. Consciously, therefore, or unconsciously, many circumstances combined to induce the Jews, who were not Pharisees, but who resisted the new heresy, to rally round the standard of the oral law, and to assert that their holy legislator, Moses, had transmitted to his faithful people by word of mouth, although not in writing, the revelation of a future state of rewards and punishments. A great belief was thus built up on a great fiction; early teaching and custom supplied the place of evidence; faith in an imaginary fact produced results as striking as could have flowed from the fact itself; and the doctrine of a Mosaic oral law, enshrining convictions and hopes deeply rooted in the human heart, has triumphed for nearly eighteen centuries in the ideas of the Jewish people. See RABBINISM.\par 4. Their Modern Representatives. \emdash Many leading Jewish writers (Pinsker, Geiger, Furst, etc.) claim the Karaites as lineal descendants of the Sadducees; and this identity is quietly assumed by Ginsburg in the art. in Kitto's Cyclopaedia, which we have thus far mainly followed. It is true the modern Karaite Jews hold, in common with the Sadducees, the decided rejection of the oral law. Less important coincidences are also pointed out, such as their views of worldly policy, their notions respecting the Levirate law, retaliation, inheritance, defilement, the Sabbath, phylacteries, etc.; but these particulars, if indeed not merely accidental, are certainly not conclusive, iLVALn the absence of any link of historical connection between the two sects. On the other hand, the failure of agreement in the marked tenet respecting the resurrection is a sufficient offset to these other marks of identity. See KARAITES.\par V. The literature is nearly the same as that for the Pharisees (q.v.). The following monographs, however, may be specified: Cellarius, De Causis cur Sadducoei Angelos negarint (Ziz. 1637); Reiske, De Sadducoeis (Jen. 1666); Mieg, De Argumento Christ. adversus Sadducoeos (Heidelb. 1677); Willemer, De Sadducceis (Viteb. 1680); Barthel, De Sadducceis (Lips. 1680); Lund, De Phariscis, Sadduceis et Essenis (Abose, 1689); Salden, De Sadducoeis et Pharisceis (in his Otia Theol. p. 554); Buding, De Sadducoeismo Annoe et Caiaphoe (Buding. 1719); Cobius, Argum. Jes. Chr. contra Sadducoeos (Viteb. 1727); Walther, De Immortalitate Animarum a Sadducoeis negata (Neubrand. 1776); Schultze, Conjecturoe Hist.-criticoe de Sadducoeis (Hal. 1779); Schaffer, Oratio <START GREEK>\par a)rxiereu=si<END GREEK>\par in Ecclesia Hebroea Sadducea (Jen. s. a.); Harenberg, Nervus Demonstrationis a Christo in Sadduccos susceptce (in Iken's Thesaur. 2, 242); Gade, De Sadducaeorum in Gente Judaica Auctoritate (in the Miscell. Lips. Nov. 2, 13; 5, 440); Guldenapfel, Josephi de Sadducaorum Canone Sententia (Jen. 1804); Grossman, De Philosophia Sadducoeorum (Lips. 1836-39, 4 vols.); Hanne, Die Pharisaer u. Sadducaer als polit. Parteien (in Hilgenfeld's Zeitschrift, 1867). See PHILOSOPHY.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVAL2 "{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SADE, RICHARD DE\par \par Sade, Richard de,\par \par a French ecclesiastic, was successively chamberlain of pope Urban VIII, vice-governor of Tivoli and Ravenna. and after 1660 bishop of Cavaillon. He died at Rome, June 27, 1663.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SADE, PONS DE\par \par Sade, Pons de,\par \par a French prelate. He was first professor in the University of Avignon, and in 1445 was made bishop of Vaison. He died at Vaison in 1469.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SADE, JEAN BAPTISTE DE\par \par Sade, Jean Baptiste de,\par \par a French prelate, nephew of Richard, was born at Avignon in 1632. After the death of his uncle he became bishop of Cavaillon, and died Dec. 21, 1707. He left several religious works: Instructions Chretiennes et Morales (1696): Reflexions Chretiennes sur les Psaumes Penitentiaux Trouvees dans la Cassette d'Antoine I, Roi de Portugal (1698).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVAL.{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SADHYAS\par \par Sadhyas,\par \par in Hindu mythology, are demi-gods, all of whom are descended from the first Menu.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SADEEL, ANTOINE\par \par Sadeel (Prop. Chandieu), Antoine,\par \par one of the promoters of the Reformation, was born, 1534, at the castle of Chabot, in the Maconnais. At the age of twenty he was invited to preach to a congregation of the Reformed at Paris. Attacked by the priests, he was employed by the Protestants to draw up a vindication, was imprisoned the next year, 1558, but was released by the king of Navarre. He went to Orleans, where, in 1562, he presided at a national synod. He then went to Berne, and finally to Geneva, where, from 1589, he labored as preacher and professor of Hebrew until his death, Feb. 23, 1591. He wrote against the Jesuits, Sophismata F. Turriani, etc. (1577): \emdash Index Repetitionum Turriani (1583, 8 vo): \emdash De Legitima Vocatione Pastorum Ecclesioe Reformatoe (1583, 8 vo): \emdash Response a la Profession de Foy (1593, 8 vo): \emdash Opera Theologica (1592, fol.).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVAL {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SADLER, ANTHONY\par \par Sadler, Anthony, D.D.,\par \par chaplain to Charles II, died about 1680. His published works are, Inquisitio Anglicana (Lond. 1654, 4 to): \emdash The Loyal Mourner (1660, 4 to): \emdash The Subject's Joy for the King's Restoration: a Masque (1660, 4 to): \emdash Strange News Indeed (1664, 4 to): \emdash Schema Sacrum, etc. (1683). Also single Sermons. See Bliss's Wood, Athen. Oxon. 3, 1267.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SADLEIR, FRANCIS\par \par Sadleir, Francis, D.D.,\par \par provost of Trinity College, Dublin, from 1837 until his death in 1851, was a lineal descendant of Sir Ralph Sadleir. His Sermons and Lectures (Donellan Lectures) were published in Dublin (1821-22, 2 vols. 8 vo).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SADIR JUG\par \par Sadir Jug,\par \par in Hindu mythology, is a period in Hindu chronology which embraces four world periods, or twelve thousand divine years of three hundred and sixty solar years each.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVAL {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SADLER, MICHAEL THOMAS\par \par Sadler, Michael Thomas,\par \par an English statesman and philanthropist, was a native of Snelston, Derbyshire, and was born in 1780. He was for some time a merchant of Leeds, was member of Parliament for Newark-upon-Trent, 1829-30, and in 1831 for Aldborough, Yorkshire. He was noted for his philanthropic interest on behalf of the agricultural poor and children in factories, and his opposition to Roman Catholic emancipation and parliamentary reform. He died in 1835. The following are some of his principal works: Ireland: its Evils and Remedies (Lond. 1828, 8 vo): \emdash Speech in the House of Commons on the Roman Catholic Relief Bill, March 17, 1829; Second Speech, March 30, 1829 (Lond. 1829).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SADLER, JOHN\par \par Sadler, John,\par \par an English divine and author, who died 1595, is known principally by his work, Sacred Records of the History of Christ (Lond. 8 vo).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVAL {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SADOLETO, PAOLO\par \par Sadoleto, Paolo,\par \par an Italian prelate, nephew of the preceding, was born at Modena, 1508. He studied literature and ancient languages at Ferrara, and was in 1533 made assistant of his uncle at the siege of Carpentras, and in 1541 governor of Venaissin. In 1544 he succeeded his uncle as bishop, and went to Rome as secretary of pope Julius III. At the death of that pontiff, in 1555, he returned to his diocese, and twice again was charged with the governorship of Venaissin, 1560, 1567. He died Feb. 26, 1572, deplored by his people for his excellent qualities and erudition. His Letters and Later Poems were published by abbe Costanzi at the end of his uncle's Letters. See Tiraboschi, Storia della Letteratura Italianza, 7; Barjavel, Diet. Hist. du Vaucluse. \par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SADOC\par \par Sa'doc,\par \par the Greek form of the name ZADOK (q.v.) in the Apocrypha and New Test.\par \par 1. (Vulg. Sadoch, the Greek original being lost). The high priest Zadok (2 Esd 1:1,1); one of Ezra's ancestors (Ezra 7:2).\par \par 2. (\par <START GREEK>Sadw/k\par <END GREEK>, Vulg. Sadoc). The son (great-grandson) of Azor and father of Achim (Matt 1:14) in Christ's ancestry. B.C. cir. 220. See GENEALOGY (OF CHRIST).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVALh^{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SADOLETO, JACOPO\par Sadoleto, Jacopo,\par a Roman cardinal and bishop, noted for his learning, ability, purity, and liberality, born at Modena in 1477. His father, a professor at Pisa, then at Ferrara, gave him an excellent education. While yet a mere youth he heard lectures on Aristotle, and was introduced to the riches of classical literature. Philosophy and eloquence were his favorite studies; and Aristotle and Cicero his masters. His first publication was Philosophicoe Consolationes et Meditationes in Adversiis (1502). He also made a promising start in poetry, as his De Cajo Curtio and De Laocoontis Statua testify. On leaving the university he went to Rome, and soon won the esteem of all scholars and of several eminent prelates. Cardinal Caraffa had him made a canon of San Lorenzo, a place which he held until 1517. Leo X, on his accession, chose Sadoleto and Peter Bembo as his secretaries. In this position Sadoleto rendered his Church faithful services and won great reputation. In 1517, while on a pilgrimage to Loretto, he was appointed bishop of Carpentras, near Avignon. After vainly declining this honor, he accepted it, and fulfilled its duties with exemplary diligence. Leo's successor, Adrian VI, did not esteem him so highly as Leo. But Clement VII recalled him to Rome \emdash a call which he accepted on condition of being permitted to return to his see after three years. He now became one of Clement's most trusted counselors, and exerted a very beneficent influence. But he endeavored in vain to dissuade the pope from his league against Charles V (1526). Foreseeing the calamities which would result, he begged to be permitted to retire to his diocese. Scarcely twenty days after his departure, Rome was sacked and the pope a prisoner. He now gave his earnest attention to the management of his dLVAL_iocese, removing unworthy pastors, appointing faithful ones, establishing schools, and endeavoring to make the Reformation unnecessary by removing abuses. Here he came into correspondence with some of the most eminent Protestants \emdash Martin Bucer, John Sturm, and Melancthon. He appreciated the motives of the Reformers; but he regarded their doctrine of justification by faith alone as an excessive statement of a good Catholic doctrine, and as liable to Antinomian abuse. His position was that of a mediator; and to all persecution of the Protestants he was utterly opposed. During his stay at Carpentras he entered afresh upon literary labors. Here he wrote a work on education: De Liberis recte Instituendis (Ven. 1533; new ed. Paris, 1855) and a commentary, In Pauli Epistolam ad Romanos (Ven. 1535). This commentary is his most important doctrinal utterance. His purpose was to present the general Catholic doctrine on faith, good work, justification, predestination, and free will. He mainly followed Chrysostom and Theophylact, and opposed the determinism of Augustine. Man is not passive in the process of regeneration, but must personally cooperate with the grace of God. Faith and good works are inseparable; but works without faith are of no worth. In so far as he opposed justification by faith alone, he opposed only its abuse. He also opposed the excessive fasts and asceticism of the Roman Church. The book was severely censured at Rome. Sadoleto modified some of its utterances, and issued a new edition in 1536. At this period he wrote also an Interpretatio of some of the Psalms. On the accession of Paul III, Sadoleto was called to Rome to give counsel as to measures of Church reform. The pope now raised him to the cardinalate (1536), retained him at Rome, and charged him with preparations for the contemplated Council of Trent. In 1538 he attended the pope when he met Charles V at Nice. Here he labored to bring about a peace between the emperor and Francis I. An armistice having been effected, he obtaineLVAL`d permission to retire to his bishopric. Here he wrote his elegant work De Philosophia. In 1539 he wrote his celebrated Epistolam ad Senatum Populumque Genevensem, an eloquent and affectionate appeal to the Genevese Protestants, whom he styles "his beloved brethren in Christ," to return into the unity of the Church. Here he also began his irenical work, De Exstructione Cath. Eccl. At this period he gave a signal proof of his Christian liberality. Francis I had issued an order of persecution against all dissenters in Provence; thereupon some of them drew up a statement of their belief, sent it to Sadoleto, and asked his intercession. He candidly made the examination, suggested a few changes, and promised to use his utmost endeavors to rescue them from persecution. War breaking out afresh between Francis I and Charles V, Sadoleto was called to Rome (1542) to act as peace commissioner. This work done, he retired for a few months to Carpentras; but in the summer of 1543 he returned to Rome to aid the pope further in his preparations for the Council of Trent. The next year he was called on to meet the emperor and the pope at Busseto in an endeavor to effect a peace with France. This was among the last of Sadoleto's labors. He was now far advanced in years; his health gave way in the summer of 1547, and on Oct. 18 he entered into rest. Sadoleto was one of the noblest characters of the age; he belonged to that select circle of high Roman prelates who sincerely desired to do away with the corruptions of their Church, but whose influence was largely counteracted by the worldly minded majority. His works, which are very elegantly written, were printed in 1607: Sadoleti Opera quoe extant Omnia (Mogunt.). His collected works, except his Letters, were again issued at Verona in 1737-38, in 4 vols. 4 to; his Epistolarum Libri XVII, at Lyons in 1550; a better edition of these Letters, at Rome, 1759, in 5 vols. 8 vo; his work on philosophy, at Paris in 1853. See his Life by Florebellus; Joly, Etude sur Sadolet (Caen,  LVAL 1857): Herzog, Real-Encyklop. 13, 297-301; Hoefer, Nouv. Biog. Generale, s.v.\par J. P. L. \par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } XLVAL l{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SAGA\par \par Saga,\par \par in Scandinavian mythology, possibly identical with Laga, is a deity who at least shares the dwelling place of Laga in the cooling waters of Soquabekr, and participate in the love of Odin, who pays her daily visits. Saga is one of the Asins, whose songs commemorate the deeds of the heroes. See NORSE MYTHOLOGY.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SAEWULF\par \par Saewulf,\par \par supposed to have been a merchant of Gloucester, flourished in 1102, and is noticed by William of Malmesbury. He left in manuscript an account of his travels in the Holy Land, A.D. 1102-3, under the title, Relatio de Peregrinatione Saewulfi ad Hierosolymam et Terram Sanctam, etc. A French translation was published in Paris, 1839, under the title, Relation des Voyages de Saewulf a Jerusalem et en Terre-Sainte; and an English translation is included in Thomas Wright's Early Travels in Palestine (Lond. 1848).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SADR\par \par Sadr,\par \par in Scandinavian mythology, is a surname of Odin, the principal deity.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVALhc{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SAFED\par Safed\par is an important, but comparatively modern town of Palestine, eight miles north-west of the sea of Galilee, famous especially as a mediaeval seat of Jewish learning. The following account of it is taken from Murray's Hand \emdash ook for Syria (page 418). Further details may be found in the Memoirs accompanying the Ordnance Survey (1:199, 248).\par "Safed lies on an isolated peak, which crowns the southern brow of the mountain range. A deep glen sweeps round its northern and a western sides, and a shallower one, after skirtinng the easternside, falls into the former a few miles to the south. Beyond these, on the north-east, north, and west, are higher hills, but on the south the view is open. The old castle crowns the peak; the Jewish quarter of the town clings to the western side, considerably below the summit, the rows of houses arranged like stairs. There are, besides, two Moslem quarters \emdash one occupying the ridge to the south, and the other nestlng in in the valley to the east. The population may be estimated at about four thousand, of whom one third are Jews and a very few families Christians.\par "The only attraction of Safed is the splendid view it commands. This is best seen from the summit of the castle. The latter is surrounded by a deep, dry ditch, within which was a wall. All is now a mass of ruins. Only a shattered fragment of one of the great round towers has survived the earthquake of 1837. Before that catastrophe it was not in the best repair, still, it afforded accommodation to the governor and his train; but then, in a few minutes, it was utterly ruined, and many of its inmates buried beneath the fallen towers.\par "Safed is first mentioned in the Vulgate version of the book of Tobit [rather as Safat in the Jerusalem Talmud; perhaps also the Seph of Jos`LVALpephus (War, 2:25)]. Tradition has made it the site of Bethulia of the book of Judith, but without evidence. The castle seems to have been founded by the crusaders to guard their territory against the inroads of the Saracens. It was garrisoned by the Knights-Templars. Its defenses, both natural and artificial, were so strong that Saladin besieged it for five weeks before he was able to capture it. After lying in ruins for many years it was rebuilt by Benedict, bishop of Manseilles, in the year 1240. But it only remained twenty years in the hands of the Christians, for, being hard pressed by Sultan Bibars, the garrison capitulated and here murdered to a man, the chief being flayed alive by the barbarous Mohammedans. From that period till the past century it continued to be one of the bulwarks of Palestine.\par "We know not when the Jews first settled in Satfed, or at what period they raised the town to the rank of a 'holy city.' There were no Jews in the place in then middle of the 12 th century; when Benjamin of Tudela visited the country; and it was not, in fact, until four centuries later that the schools of Safed became celebrated. Then a printing-press was set up, synagogues were built, and the rabbis of Safed were acknowledged to be among the chief ornaments of Hebrew literature. The 16 th century was their golden age in the 17 th both learning and funds began to decline, and the earthquake of 1837 gave a deathblow to the Jewish cause. Printing-press, synagogues, schools, houses, and people were all involved in one common ruin."\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVALhe{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SAFFORD, JEFFERSON PRICE\par Safford, Jefferson Price, D.D.\par a Presbyterian minister, was born at Zanesville, Ohio, September 22, 1823. He graduated from the University of Ohio, at Athens, in 1843; taught at Dry Creek Academy, Covington, Kentucky, and at Indianapolis Academy, Ind., for two years each; was professor of mathematics at Covington, in 1847 and 1848; next entered Princeton Seminary, N.J., where he graduated in 1852; was licensed by the Presbytery of Philadelphia, April 5, 1851; taught mathematics at Richmond Academy, Richmond, Virginia, three years, supplying also, part of the time, the Church at Bethlehem, and was ordained by the Presbytery of West Lexington, at Frankfort, Kentucky, February 9, 1855. His fields of labor were the Church at Frankfort, from 1855 to 1857; pastor of First Church, Piqua, Ohio, from 1857 to 1862.; First Church, New Albany, Indiana, from 1862 to 1867, and district secretary of the Board of Missions for Ohio and Indiana from 1867 to 1870. He served as stated supply to Brownsville (Ohio) Church from 1870 to 1876, at the same time supplying also Fairmount Church from 1870 to 1877, Rosville Church from 1871 to 1873, acting as president of Zanesville University in 1871 and 1872, supplying Uniontown (Ohio) Church from 1871 to 1873, Hanover Church in 1873 and 1874, Kirkersville Church from 1874 to 1879, and Claysville and West Carlisle churches until his death, which occurred at Zanesville, July 10, 1881. Dr. Safford was also the accurate and efficient stated clerk of the Presbytery of Zanesville from 1873, and of the synod of Colisumbus from 1876. See Necrol. Report of Princeton Theol. Sem. 1882, page 48.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs2LVAL9\par } LVALhg{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SAFFRON\par Saffron\par \par (<START HEBREW><K)r=K^<END HEBREW>\par , karkom', Sept. <START GREEK>\par kro/ko$<END GREEK>\par ) occurs only once in the O.T., viz. in Song 4:14, where it is mentioned along with several fragrant and stimulant substances, such as spikenard, calamus, and cinnamon, trees of frankincense, myrrh, and aloes (ahalim): we may therefore suppose that it was some substance possessed of similar properties. The name, however, is so similar to the Persian karkam (see Castelli, Lex. Hept. Col. 1808) and the Greek <START GREEK>\par kro/ko$<END GREEK>\par that we have no difficulty in tracing the Hebrew karkon to the modern crocus or saffron. It is also probable that all three names had one common origin, saffron having from the earliest times been cultivated in Asiatic countries, as it still is in Persia and Cashmere (comp. Theophr. Plant. 6, 6; Pliny, 21, 17), and especially in ancient Cilicia (Strabo, 14, 6, 71; Dioscor. 1, 25). Crocus is mentioned by Hippocrates and Theophrastus. Dioscorides describes the different kinds of it, and Pliny states that the benches of the public theatres were strewn with saffron; indeed, "the ancients frequently made use of this flower in perfumes. Not only saloons, theatres, and places which were to be filled with a pleasant fragrance were strewn with this substance, but all sorts of vinous tinctures retaining the scent were made of it, and this costly perfume was poured into small fountains, which diffused the odor which was so highly esteemed. Even fruit and confitures placed before guests, and the ornaments of the rooms, were spread over with it. It was used for the same purposes as the modern potpourri" (Rosenmiller, Bibl. Bot. p. 138). In the present day a very high price is given in India for saffron imported from Cashmere; native dishes LVALhare often colored and flavored with it, and it is in high esteem as a stimulant medicine. The common name, saffron, is no doubt derived from the Arabic zafran. as are the corresponding terms in most of the languages of Europe. To this it may be added that it was a favorite pigment or dye. "Saffron-vested" (<START GREEK>\par kro/kopeplo$<END GREEK>\par ) is a Homeric epithet for aurora or morning, and the crocota was a robe of delicate texture and bright-yellow color, occasionally worn by actors and Roman ladies. Its beauty in the landscape is referred to by Homer (Iliad, 14, 399), Virgil (Georg. 4, 182), and Milton (Par. Lost, 4, 700). Nothing, therefore, was more likely than that saffron should be associated with the foregoing fragrant substances in the passage of Canticles, as it still continues to be esteemed by Asiatic nations, and, as we have seen, to be cultivated by them. Hasselquist also (Trav. p. 36), in reference to this Biblical plant, describes the ground between Smyrna and Magnesia as in some places covered with saffron; and Rauwolf mentions gardens and fields of crocus in the neighborhood of Aleppo, and particularizes a fragrant variety in Syria. Kitto (Phys. Hist. of Palest. p. 321) says that the safflower (Carthamus tinctorius), a very different plant from the crocus, is cultivated in Syria for the sake of the flowers which are used in dyeing; but the karkam, no doubt, denotes the Crocus sativus. \par Saffron belongs to the flag or iris order (Iridaceoe). The different members of the crocus family are great favorites: the purple and golden varieties (Crocus vernus, Willd., and C. aureus, Sin.), which, on English flower borders, are the first to follow the snowdrop, and often fill with a flush of coming spring the earliest days of March; and the lonely, fragile sort (C. nudiforus, Sm.), which, with its own leaves still underground, comes up amid the drifting foliage of autumn, making a mournful effort to cheer the last days of October. These, and other species now naturalized in varipLVALous localities, are regarded by some as only varieties of the C. sativus of Linnaeus, the true or saffron-yielding crocus \emdash a plant of plentiful occurrence in Greece and Asia Minor. The name saffron, as usually applied, does not denote the whole plant, nor even the whole flower, of Crocus sativus, but only the stigmas, with part of the style, which, being plucked out, are carefully dried. (Comp. Halle Encykl. 1, \'a7 20, 165 sq., and plates in Plenck, Icones Plantar. Med. 1, plate 32.) These, when prepared, are dry, narrow, thread-like, and twisted together, of an orangeyellow color, having a peculiar aromatic and penetrating odor, with a bitterish and somewhat aromatic taste, tinging the mouth and saliva of a yellow color. Sometimes the stigmas are prepared by being submitted to pressure, and thus made into what is called cake saffron, a form in which it is still imported from Persia into India. Hay saffron is obtained chiefly from France and Spain, though it is also sometimes prepared from the native crocus cultivated for this purpose. Saffron was formerly highly esteemed as a stimulant medicine, and still enjoys high repute in Eastern countries both as a medicine and as a condiment. See, further, Beckmann; Geschichte der Erfind. 2, 79 sq.; Celsius, Hierobot. 2, 11 sq.; Bod. a Stapel. Comment. in Theophr. p. 663 sq.; Hertodt, Crocologia (Jen. 1670); Tristram, Nat. Hist. of the Bible, p. 496.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVAL f{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SAGARIS\par \par Sagaris,\par \par in Greek mythology, was a Trojan who accompanied AEneas to Italy, where he was slain by Turnus.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SAGAREN, OR SANGAREN\par \par Sagaren, Or Sangaren,\par \par in Hindu mythology, was a famous king, belonging to the race of Children of the Sun, whose sixty thousand sons were turned to ashes by an angry glance of the white penitent Kabiler.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SAGAN\par \par Sagan\par \par (<START HEBREW>/g#s#\par <END HEBREW>, a proefect), the second priest of the Jews, who acted as deputy of the high priest, often officiating for him in the sacred service of the Temple. He was sometimes called high priest, and was identical with the ruler of the Temple. See PRIEST.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVAL 0{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SAGATRAKAWAXEN\par \par Sagatrakawaxen,\par \par in Hindu mythology, was a monstrous giant who sprang from the blood of Brahma, when that god was decapitated by the angry Siva, and who was provided with five hundred heads and a thousand arms.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SAGARITIS\par \par Sagaritis,\par \par in Phoenician mythology, was a dryad who induced Atys to violate his faith with Cybele, to punish which the latter cut down the tree of Sagaritis, and thus caused her death.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } 2Hm,r? [ f % B  A <  c> cd7n9 ^+\/G"y:SALIUS@SALISBURY, NATHANIELP@:.SALIMBENI, VENTURA@6*SALIMBENI, SIMONDIO@8,SALIMBENI, ARCANGELO@:.SALIM8hSALII @SALIG, CHRISTIAN AUGUSTth@4SALIER, JACQUES0@0$SALIAN, JACQUES@0$SALGANEUS@$SALESIANSh$SALEMA@SALEMNhSALE, JOHN @&SALCAH(hSALATHIEL@$SALAT, JACOBf @*SALASADAIf@$SALARYhSALAMISX'h SALAMINIUS@&SALAMANDER@&SALAI, ANDREA@, SALAH @SALAGRAMMA8@&SALADINp h SALACIA@ SALA@SAKYAMUNI@$SAKUNTALA"@$SAKTI SODHANA @, SAKTI@SAKTAShSAKKUTO, ABRAHAM BEN-SAMUELhH<SAKINj@SAKIA"@SAKHTAR@ SAKHI BHAVAS@*SAKER, ALFRED8 @, SAKAR@SAJOTKATTA`@&SAIVO OINIAK@*SAIVAShSAITONS\@ SAITIS@@SAINTE-VALIER, JEAN BAPTISTE DE LACROIX DEj@fZSAINTE-MARTHE, CLAUDE DE @B6SAINTE-BEUVE, JACQUES DE @B6SAINTE-AULAIRE, MARTIAL LOUIS DE BEAUPOIL DEF@j^SAINT-SIMON, CLAUDE HENRI4hD8SAINT-SIMON, CLAUDE,@8,SAINT-PIERRE, CHARLES IRENEE CASTEL @XLSAINT-PARD @&SAINT-JURE, JEAN BAPTISTE DE@J>SAINT-JOHN, PAWLETT@8,SAINT-GEORGE, ARTHURr@:.SAINT-AMOUR, LOUIS GORIN DE @H<SAINT JOHN, KNIGHTS HOSPITALLERS OF(|hXLSAINT EDMUNDS, ALANL@w8,SAINT~2xhSAILLY, THOMASX @w."SAILER, JOHANN MICHAEL85sh>2SAIL, ANDREW@r*SAIL@oSAHUGUET, MARC RENE.ph8,SAHM, PETER@o(SAGUI@lSAGITTARIUS, CASPARmh8,SAGE, JOHN@l&SAGATRAKAWAXEN@j."SAGARITISJ@j$LVALb{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SAGUI\par \par Sagui,\par \par in Hindu mythology, is the second stage of blessedness in the paradise of Vishnu. See HINDUISM.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SAGE, JOHN\par \par Sage, John,\par \par a bishop of the Episcopal Church of Scotland, was born (1652) in the parish of Creich, Fife. He was educated at the University of St. Andrews (M.A. 1672), and was ordained in 1684. He officiated at Glasgow until the Revolution in 1688, and was consecrated a bishop for Scotland, 1705. He died in 1711. The following are his principal works: The Fundamental Charter of Presbytery (Lond. 1695, 8 vo); The Principles of the Cyprianic Age with regard to Episcopal Power, etc. (1695. 4 to; 1717, 8 vo); A Vindication of the same (1701, 4 to). These, together with his Life, were republished, in three octavo volumes, by the Spottiswoode Society (Edin. 1844-46). See Allibone, Dict. of Authors, s.v.; Darling, Cyclop. Bibliog. s.v.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVALhn{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SAGITTARIUS, CASPAR\par Sagittarius, Caspar,\par historiographer of the duchy of Saxony, professor of history at the University of Jena, and, according to his biographer, J.A. Schmidt, one of the most excellent, erudite, and industrious men of his time, was born Sept. 23, 1643. His father, a pastor, taught him with care, and sent him, when fifteen, to the gymnasium at Lubeck. At this early age he published an essay, De Ritibus Veterum Romanorum Nuptialibus, and began his annotations on Justin. Here also he wrote an erudite history of the Passion of Jesus. After three years at the gymnasium, he entered the University of Helmstadt, and heard lectures on the whole field of human knowledge \emdash exegesis, church history, metaphysics, logic, ethics, politics, physics, history, geography, and anatomy \emdash thus laying a foundation for the character of polyhistor which he subsequently bore. He also preached and traveled in various parts of Germany, and formed relations with many learned men. He next prepared his work, De Calceis et Nudipedalibus Veterum. At the age of twenty-five he became rector of the school at Saalfeld (1668), where he not only distinguished himself as an educator, but also continued his literary productiveness. In 1671 he was called to a professorship at Jena. After writing various philological treatises and theological disputations \emdash one of them De Martyrum Cruciatibus in Primitiva Ecclesia \emdash he succeeded (1674) to the chair of J.A. Bose as professor of history. The next year he published a very learned work on the history and customs of Thuringia. In 1676 he visited the libraries of Germany and Copenhagen; in 1678 he issued his Compendium Historioe Saxonicoe, and was made a doctor of theology; in the following years he appeared as a polemic, defending Lutheranism aLVALgainst the Jesuit Schonmann. Thereupon followed various works on Pietism, which he boldly defended, and for which he was bitterly assailed by the staid orthodox party. Among the best of his works in this strife is his Christlicher Neujahrswunsch an alle evangelische Theologos, die die Beforderung des thatigen Christenthums sich angelegen seyn lassen (Jena, 1692). Among his later writings were his Historia Vitae Georgii Spalatini (Jena, 1693), and an Introductio in Historiam Ecclesiasticam, which he did not live to finish. He died March 9, 1694. For a complete list of the works of Sagittarius, see Joan. Andr. Schmidii Commentarius de Vita et Scriptis Caspari Sagittarii (Jena, 1713). See Herzog, Real-Encykl. 13, 301-304.\par J. P. L. \par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } BLVALn T{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SAIL\par \par Sail\par \par is the incorrect rendering in the passages Isa 33:23; Ezek 27:7, of the Hebrew <START HEBREW>sn@\par <END HEBREW>, nes, usually a standard or flag-staff, and in the passages in question a flag of a ship. In Acts 27:17 it stands vaguely for \par <START GREEK>skeu=o$\par <END GREEK> (a vessel or implement of any kind), which there designates the tackling, or sailing apparatus in general of a ship. See MAIN-SAIL.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SAHM, PETER\par \par Sahm, Peter, D.D.\par \par a Lutheran minister, graduated from Gettysburg Theological Seminary in 1831, and entered the ministry in 1832, the period of his service comprising forty-four years. He preached in both German and English as occasion required. A considerable time he was pastor at Green Castle. At the time of his death he was serving the Church at New Berlin, Pennsylvania. He died at Laurelton, March 14, 1876, aged sixty-six years. See Lutheran Observer, March 24, 1876.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVALhq{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SAHUGUET, MARC RENE\par Sahuguet, Marc Rene,\par abbe d'Espagnac, was born at Brives, in 1753. Being destined for the Church, he received orders, and was soon appointed canon of Paris. He gave himself principally to literary pursuits, and his earlier essays have received just praise. In 1782 he became advisory clerk of Parliament, and soon developed a great love of riches. The agent and friend of Calonne, he only engaged in those enterprises which would increase his wealth. Among his operations was a speculation in shares of the East India Company, which was so scandalous as to oblige the government to cancel the whole bargain. After the disgrace of Calonne, the abbe d'Espagnac was exiled, though he was still canon of Notre Dame. In 1789 he returned to Paris and associated himself with the so called Club of 1789. At the same time he was a friend of the Jacobins, whose influence procured for him the office of purveyor to the army of the Alps. He was very soon denounced by Cambon and put under sentence of arrest for engaging in fraudulent business transactions, but succeeded in clearing himself. Having gained his liberty, he attached himself to the army of Dumouriez, and by various means acquired an immense fortune. But at the revolt of Dumouriez, Sahuguet was arrested, and tried as an accomplice in a conspiracy to corrupt the government. He was found guilty, and executed at Paris, April 5, 1794. Of his literary works there are a few remaining which show considerable ability. The most noticeable are L'Eloge de Catinat, who was crowned by the French Academy in 1775, and Reflexions sur l'Abbe Suger et sur son Siecle (1780). \emdash Hoefer, Nouv. Biog. Generale, s.v.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights resLVALerved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVAL${\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SAIL, ANDREW\par Sail, Andrew, D.D.\par an English divine, was born near Cashel, Ireland, about 1612, and after having studied for some time at St. Omer's, was transferred to Valladolid, in Spain, that he might become conversant with the rules and institutions of the Jesuits. Having acquired distinction as a theologian, he was appointed successively reader of divinity at Pampeluna, professor at Tudela and Valencia, rector of the Irish College, and lecturer of controversial divinity at the University of Salamanca. It was at this time that many of the influential Roman Catholics in Ireland expressed their willingness to adhere to king Charles XI, and renounce the interference of all foreign power, even though the pope should excommunicate them. Under these circumstances it was deemed expedient by the Romish court to send Jesuits to Ireland, and among them was Sail. Some years later, however, a change took place in his religious views, and he joined the Church of England, in connection with which he labored with exemplary diligence till his death, April 6, 1682. His works are, Recantation, and a Sermon on Matthew 24:15-18, in Confutation of the Errors of the Church of Rome (Lond. 1674, 8 vo): \emdash The Catholick and Apostolick Faith Maintained in the Church of England (Oxford, 1676, 8 vo): \emdash Votum pro Pace Christiana (1678, 4 to): \emdash Ethica seu Moralis Philosophia (1680, 8 vo). See (Lond.). Church of England Magazine, July 1841, page 3; Allibone, Dict. of Brit. and Amer. Authors, s.v.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVALht{\rtf1\ansi\ansicpg1252\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SAILER, JOHANN MICHAEL\par Sailer, Johann Michael,\par a Roman Catholic bishop of Ratisbon, the originator of a tendency in German Catholicism, and one of the purest and noblest theologians of the Church universal. His life lies between Nov. 17, 1751, and May 20, 1832. He was born near Schrobenhausen, in the bishopric of Augsburg, of upright, devout parents. His mother left upon his young heart an impression for which he expressed public thanks to the end of his days. His readiness in learning induced his father to send him in his tenth year to school at Munich. For five or six years he earned his way as attendant on a young nobleman. Having finished his gymnasium studies at the age of nineteen, he entered as Novitiate into the Jesuit Society at Landsberg, and passed three very studious years. On the dissolution of the order (1773), he went to Ingolstadt, and pursued philosophy and theology until 1777, when he was consecrated to the priesthood.\par Up to his sixteenth year, Sailer suffered under a tender and often upbraiding conscience. But, finding a wise spiritual guide, he was now led to a clear, evangelical conversion. At his eighteenth year he was troubled with historical doubts. An aged missionary from India helped him, happily, over these. But other, even severer, temptations beset him subsequently. In 1777 he became repetitor publicus of philosophy and theology at Ingolstadt. Here he formed intimate bonds with the zealous and devout pastor Feneberg, and with Winkelhofer, the German Fenelon. In 1780 he was promoted to the chair of dogmatics. He now began his public literary activity, and published notes to the Imitatio Christi, also a prayer book, which has enjoyed great popularity, and a discussion of the province of reason. From 1784 to 1794 he served as professor of pastoral thLVALueology at the University of Dillingen \emdash a very fruitful period. He planted evangelical principles in the hearts of thousands of students, who in turn spread them throughout German Catholicism. He formed religious friendships with many eminent Protestants, especially Lavater, and with all who were earnestly upholding religion against the inflooding of rationalism. This finally brought persecution upon Sailer, and in 1794 he was abruptly dismissed from his chair. For a while he shared the hospitality of Winkelhofer in Munich, but then retired into greater privacy at Ebersberg. The next six years brought to Sailer great spiritual temptations. He was brought into the stream of earnest evangelical mysticism which centerd in Martin Boos; but he was not entirely carried captive by it. Partially convinced that he still retained something of the Pharisee and formalist, yet unable to break entirely away from Catholic tradition, he finally sought refuge and consolation in fervent prayer and active labor upon the souls of men. Not fully rising to the subjective self assertion of Luther, he yet clung with his whole heart to Christ, and followed the examples of Fenelon and Francis de Sales. His piety resembled that of Charles Wesley, while his adhesion to Catholicism, though less passionate, was yet of the same type as Charles Wesley's devotion to the Establishment. In 1799, Sailer was again favored with a chair in Ingolstadt. The next year the university was removed to Landshut. Here he labored with great fruitfulness until 1821. He lectured on ethics, pastoral theology, homiletics, pedagogics, liturgies, and served as university preacher. His pen was also very busy. He attracted students from every part of Germany, and received many tempting calls to other fields, one of them to the archbishopric of Cologne; but he declined them all. Even yet he did not entirely escape persecution and abuse; but he bore it all with the greatest patience, holding as his motto the words of the prophet (Jer 30:15), "In spe etLVALv silentio erit fortitudo vestra." While Napoleon accused him of being a bigoted papist, the pope distrusted him and refused to confirm him as bishop of Augsburg. Accused of mysticism and of fraternization with Protestants, he published, in 1820, a detailed defense of all that he had done or taught, and submitted the whole to the judgment of the pope, "following the example of the great Fenelon." This document did not fully satisfy Rome, and it was only after considerable negotiation that the king of Bavaria obtained papal consent to his ecclesiastical preferment. In 1821 he was made prebendary of Ratisbon, and in 1822 vicar-general and coadjutor of the aged bishop Von Wolf; at the same time he was made bishop in partibus of Germanicopolis. With great conscientiousness he now entered upon the weighty duties of this great diocese of Ratisbon. Everywhere he endeavored to look into matters with his own eyes, and to correct all abuses to the extent of his ability. He held regular meetings with all his clergy, and endeavored to improve the popular education. In 1829 he became in name what he had long been in reality, bishop of Ratisbon. Three years later he died at the age of eighty-one. A complete edition of his works was published by J. Widmer (Sulzb. 1830-42) in forty volumes. Among them the following deserve special mention: Briefe aus allen Jahrhunderten (1800-4): \emdash Grundlehren der Religion: \emdash Moralphilosophie: \emdash Erziehung fur Erzieher: \emdash Die Weisheit auf der Gasse: \emdash Pastoraltheologie: \emdash and many sermons and addresses. Though lacking in profound speculative power, Sailer's writings have yet had a very wide and very stimulating influence. He has been compared to Herder, but he had far more respect than Herder for the objective fruit of ecclesiastical thought. He endeavored in all things to practice the maxim In necessarsiis unitas, in dubiis libertas, in omnibus caritas. Of a school of theology as springing from Sailer, we cannot properly speak. He did not leavl LVAL| e a school, but only a spiritual impulse. He was of decidedly irenical tendency. Full of Christian love, his ideal was a "mild orthodoxy," equally opposed to rationalism, on the one hand, and to a stiff, and, Roman orthodoxy, on the other. Among the most eminent followers of Sailer was Melchior Diepenbrock (1798-1851), his companion at Ratisbon, and subsequently princebishop of Breslau and cardinal-priest. See Hagenbach, Church in the 18 th and 19 th Centuries; but especially Herzog, Real-Encykl. 13, 305-313.\par J. P. L. \par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } JLVAL\{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SAINT EDMUNDS, ALAN\par \par Saint Edmunds, Alan\par \par a Scotch prelate, was bishop of the see of Caithness in 1290, and in 1291 was made lord-chancellor. He died in 1292. See Keith, Scottish Bishops, page 211.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SAILLY, THOMAS\par \par Sailly, Thomas,\par \par a Belgian theologian, was born at Brussels in 1553, where he died in 1623. At the age of seventeen, having been already ordained priest, he went to Rome to enter the Society of Jesus. When hardly out of his novitiate, he was sent by Gregory XIII on an embassy to the czar Ivan. On account of his health he was recalled, and became confessor to prince Alexander of Parma. In 1597 he was made superior of a military mission, and in 1606 he went to Rome as procurator-general of the Belgian provinces. In 1620 he took part as missionary in the campaign of Spinola. He was the author of works in Latin, Flemish, and French: Guidon et Pratique Spirituelle du Soldat Chretien (1590): \emdash Narratio Itineris Fr. de Mendoza, Almirantii Aragonioe, in Leqatione sua (1598): \emdash Thesaurus Litanarum ac Orationum Sacer (1598): \emdash Den niewen Morghenwekker (1612). He also translated several religious treatises into his native language.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVALhy{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SAINT\par Saint,\par an epithet applied to (1) a person eminent for piety and virtue; (2) a consecrated or sanctified person. There are two words in the Hebrew Scripture used to express the above, both of which are rendered in our translation by the single expression Saint. <START HEBREW>dys!j*<END HEBREW>\par , chasid (like the Gr. <START GREEK>\par o%sio$<END GREEK>\par ), denotes a mental quality; its most certain acceptation being pious, just, godly, etc. It is spoken of pious Hebrews (Ps 4:3; 30:4; 31:23; 37:28; 50:5; 52:9; 79:2; 97:10; 116:15). On the other hand, <START HEBREW>?odq*<END HEBREW>\par , kadosh, and also the Greek word <START GREEK>\par a%gio$<END GREEK>\par , signifies pure, clean, in reference to physical purity and cleanliness; they are also used of moral purity, holy, hallowed, sacred \emdash applied to persons consecrated to the service of God: the priests (Ex 28:41; 29:1; Lev 21:6; 1 Sam 7:1; 1 Peter 2:5); the first-born (Ex 13:2; Luke 2:23; Rom 11:16); and the people of Israel (Ex 19:10,14; Isa 13:3); prophets and apostles (Luke 1:70; Acts 3:21; 2 Peter 1:21; Eph 3:5); the pious Israelites, the saints (Deut 33:3; Ps 16:3; 34:9; 89:5,7; Zech 14:5; Dan 7:18,21,25,27; Matt 27:52); and the angels (Job 5:1; 15:15; Dan 8:13; Matt 25:31; 1 Thess 3:13). The latter Greek word is also used of those who are purified and sanctified by the Holy Spirit; and as this is assumed of all who profess the Christian name, Christians are called saints (Acts 9:13,14,32,41; 26:10; Rom 1:7; 8:27). It may here be observed that the Hebrew word for a consecrated prostitute is <START HEBREW>hv*d@q=<END HEBREW>\par , kedeshah, derived from <START HEBREW>vdq*<END HEBREW>\par , kadosh, in its signification of separated, dedicated, because such women among idolaters were devoted to the service of thLVALze temples of their false deities, particularly those of Venus, and to the ancient priests of Bel, or Belus. Of such female devotees, instances are to be found in the present day attached to the Hindu temples.\par The later Jews have their saints as well as the Christian Church; the word they use is <START HEBREW>vdq<END HEBREW>\par , kadosh. Their most celebrated saint is rabbi Judah Hak-kadosh (rabbi Judah the Holy). He lived about one hundred and twenty years after the destruction of the second Temple, and was the author of the Mishna (or text) of the Babylonian Talmud. They have also their devout men (<START HEBREW><ydsj<END HEBREW>\par , chasidim), who devote themselves to a religious life and to the study of their law, visit the dying, perform the rites for the dead, etc. Of such kind were the "devout persons" with whom Paul disputed (Acts 17:17). In the New Test. the word <START GREEK>\par a%gio$<END GREEK>\par , as above, is used throughout wherever our version has "saint," and with the same signification as in the Sept. \emdash viz. separated, dedicated, sanctified by consecration \emdash because the Christians were then especially dedicated to God's service, in separation from the Jews and pagans, as the Jews had been before the "holy people" separated from the Gentiles. See HOLINESS.\par After the Christian era, the martyrs were considered as dignified saints in the same rank as the apostles \emdash i.e. saints by profession and office, as distinguished from the saints, or holy and pious by character and conduct, such as have been eminent for religion and virtue, but not canonized. After some time canonization was extended also to confessors \emdash that is, persons who during the persecutions against the Christians had made a resolute avowal and defense of their faith, and had suffered torture, banishment, or confiscation in consequence, but not actual martyrdom (see the monographs cited by Volbeding, Index Programmatum, p. 169). For some centuries there was no regular canonizatioLVAL{n in the Christian Church. By a tacit consent of the clergy the names of martyrs, etc., were inserted as saints in a kind of ecclesiastical register, called a diptych. It was not till about the 9 th century that solemn and formal canonization, with its particular ceremonies, began to be regularly practiced. At present, in the Church of Rome, the ceremony of beatification, or being pronounced blessed by the pope, must precede canonization, and cannot take place till fifty years after death. See CANONIZATION. The word is generally applied by us to the apostles and other holy persons mentioned in the Scriptures; but the Romanists make its application much more extensive, as, according to them, all who are canonized are made saints of a high degree. Protestants, in applying this term to the sacred writers, are very inconsistent; for though they say St. John, St. Peter, St. David, they never use St. Isaiah, St. Habakkuk, etc. The practice has even extended to naming churches after certain saints. See PATRON SAINTS.\par Concerning the bodies of the saints which arose and came out of their graves after the resurrection of Christ (Matt 27:50), it is believed that they were persons who believed in him and waited for him in hope, as old Simeon had done (Luke 2:25), but who had died before his resurrection, and who were thus favored to be an example of the general resurrection, and to whom Christ alluded (John 5:25), "The hour is coming, and now is, when the dead shall hear the voice of the Son of God, and they that hear shall live;" and of whom Paul speaks, "Now is Christ risen from the dead, and become the first fruits of them that slept," because his resurrection was the signal for theirs. It appears that these persons must have been deceased during the then present generation; for they went into Jerusalem, and appeared unto many, who could not have recognized them had they been much longer dead. We may here observe that when the word saint or saints (<START GREEK>\par a%gio$, a%gioi<END GREEK>\par ) is us& LVAL6 ed in the New Test. relative to persons deceased, it is to be understood of the spirits of the just (without any distinction of office or character) made perfect. See RESURRECTION.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVALh}{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SAINT JOHN, KNIGHTS HOSPITALLERS OF\par Saint John, Knights Hospitallers Of\par (also called Knights of Rhodes, and Knights of Malta), a religious and military order, originating in the middle of the 11 th century. Some citizens of Amalfi, while trading with Palestine, had (1048) founded two hospitals for the reception of pilgrims to Jerusalem \emdash one for men, and the other for women. The hospital for men bore the name of St. John the Almoner, a native of Cyprus and patriarch of Alexandria, who sent aid to Jerusalem in 614, after it had been sacked by Chosroes II. The confraternity who did service in the hospital was under the direction of Gerard. They displayed such heroic charity when Jerusalem was captured by the Crusaders, July 15, 1099, that several knights \emdash among them Raymond du Puy \emdash joined them as hospitallers. The lordship of Montboire, in Brabant, was bestowed upon them by Godfrey de Bouillon. When peace was restored to the city, Gerard and his associates pledged themselves to labor forever in the hospitals "as the servants of the poor and of Christ," the members of both sexes assuming as their habit the black robe of the Augustinians, with a white linen cross of eight points on the left breast. The order received the papal approbation from pope Paschal II, Feb. 15, 1113, under the appellation of "Brothers Hospitallers of St. John in Jerusalem." A magnificent church was erected to St. John the Baptist on the traditional site: of his parents' abode. Gerard took the title of Guardian and Provost of the order, and built, for the accommodation of pilgrims, hospitals in the chief maritime towns of Western Europe; these afterwards became commanderies of the order. Gerard died in 1118, and was succeeded by Raymond du Puy, who to their former duty of hospitality and attendance uLVAL~pon the sick added that of knighthood, in opposition to infidels; and this soon became the principal object of the order. Raymond divided the order into knights, priests, and brother servants; and there grew up, also, a numerous intermediate class of sergeants (old Fr. serfgents, serving men), who rendered valuable service in field and hospital, and were, in course of time, assigned separate commanderies. The order, under its new organization, was called after St. John the Baptist; and Raymond exchanged the title of guardian for that of master. The title of grandmaster was first assumed by Hugues de Revel, 1267. The constitutions, based on the Augustinian rule, were drawn up by Raymond, and approved by pope Calixtus II, 1120. The great influx of members caused the order to be divided according to nationalities, or "languages" \emdash those of Provence, Auvergne, France, Italy, Aragon, Germany, and England \emdash to which were added the languages of Castile and Portugal. The order became famous by its delivering Antioch from the Moslems, raising the siege of Jaffa, assisting powerfully in the fall of Tyre, driving the enemy from Coele-Syria and Phoenicia, and contributing to the fall of Ascalon, in 1153. Amaury, king of Jerusalem, bribed them, in 1168, to promise to violate a solemn treaty and engage in an expedition against Egypt. The order was nearly annihilated in 1187 by Saladin in the battle of Tiberias. After the fall of Jerusalem, it was established at the castle of Margat (Markat), the female branch of the order retiring to Europe. The Kharesmians nearly exterminated the order in 1244 at the battle of Gaza. When the Saracens took Acre (1291), the hospitallers removed to Limisso, in Cyprus, where originated their naval character, as their vessels conveyed pilgrims to the Holy Land. Having conquered Rhodes in 1309 (or 1310), they afterwards made it the principal seat of their order, and were hence called Knights of Rhodes. They sustained there two sieges, the first, in 1480, under the grandmasLVALter D'Aubusson, proving disastrous to the besiegers; and the second, under L'Isle-Adam, in 1522, ending (after a heroic defense of six months) in the defeat of the knights and evacuation of the island. After taking refuge successively in Candia, Messina, and the mainland of Italy, they were put in possession of the islands of Gozo and Malta and the city of Tripoli by emperor Charles V. They made Malta one of the strongest places in the world, and it gave its name to the order. They repelled attacks from the Turks in 1551 and 1565, and held the island until June, 1798, when it was taken by Bonaparte, the grandmaster Hompesch having abdicated and been sent to Trieste. Since that event the order has existed only in name. It was for a time under the protection of Paul I of Russia, whose reported conversion to Romanism led to his being elected grandmaster. The seat of the order was removed to Catana in 1801. to Ferrara in 1826, and to Rome in 1834. See HOSPITALLERS.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } xLVAL{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SAINT-GEORGE, ARTHUR\par \par Saint-George, Arthur, D.D.,\par \par dean of Rosse, died 1772. His only published work is The Archdeacon's Examination of Candidates for Holy Orders, etc., edited by W. Wotton, D.D. (Lond. 1751, 12 mo).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SAINT-AMOUR, LOUIS GORIN DE\par Saint-Amour, Louis Gorin De,\par a French theologian, was born at Paris, Oct. 27, 1619. He was educated at the University of Paris, and afterwards became its rector, and in 1644 was made professor at the Sorbonne. His profound learning and the vigor of his argumentative powers soon made him conspicuous in the assemblies of the faculty. When the Jesuits obtained the condemnation of the five propositions of the book of Jansenius, Saint-Amour became one of the most powerful adversaries of the decision. He was one of the doctors who went to Rome to obtain its reversal, but was obliged to return without having succeeded. By his defense of Arulauld he was excluded from the assemblies of the Sorbonne, and, being arrested by the order of the Council of State, he was in 1684 burned at the stake. He published a Journal de ce quei c'est passea a Rome touchant les cinq Propositions depuis 1646 jusqu'en 1653 (1662), edited by Arnauld and De Sacy from the notes of Saint-Amour and the abbe Salaine.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVALd {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SAINT-JURE, JEAN BAPTISTE DE\par \par Saint-Jure, Jean Baptiste De,\par \par an ascetic author, was born, in 1588, at Metz. At the age of sixteen he joined the Jesuits, and was superior successively of the monasteries at Amiens, Alencon, Orleans, and Paris. He was one of the Jesuits who went into England during the reign of Charles I; but the condition of the country was so unsettled that he returned to his native land. He died at Paris, April 30, 1657. He wrote several works which have been reprinted, even at the present day. We mention De la Connaissance et de I'Amour de Jesus-Christ (1634): \emdash Methode pour bien mourir (1640): L'Homme Spirituel (1646): \emdash L'Idee d'un Parfait Chretien, ou la Vie de M. de Renty (1651): \emdash L'Homme Religieux (1657);\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SAINT-JOHN, PAWLETT\par \par Saint-John, Pawlett, D.D.,\par \par rector of Yelden, Beds, prebendary of Hereford, and chaplain in ordinary. He received the degree of M.A. in 1706, and D.D. in 1716, and died 1732. "His sermons were written in a forcible yet simple style." Fourteen of them, on practical subjects, were published (Lond. 1737, 8 vo). See Darling, Cyclop. Bibliog. s.v.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } "LVAL2{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SAINT-PARD\par Saint-Pard (Pierre Nicholas Van Blotaque),\par Abbe de, a Belgian ascetic writer, was born, Feb. 9, 1734, at Givet-Saint-Hilaire. He studied with the Jesuits at Diman, joined their order, and was sent to teach in various colleges. At the time of the suppression of the society he was at Vennes, but went to Paris; and, learning of the interdict of Parliament, he changed his name to that of Saint-Pard, which he retained till his death, which occurred at Paris, Dec. 1, 1824. During the Revolution he remained in Paris, and, though obliged to conceal himself; he still exercised his ministerial functions. Under the Directory he became bolder, and was twice imprisoned for preaching in public. In 1801 he became honorary canon of Notre Dame, and had charge of the parish of St. Jacques de Haut-Pas, which he held during the remainder of his life. Of his writings we have Retraite de dix Jours (1773): \emdash L'Ame Chretienne formee sur les Maximes de l'Evangile (1774): \emdash Exercises de l'Amou du Penitent (1799). He abridged and re-edited Le Livre des Elus (1759), and La Connaissance de Jesus-Christ (1772),\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVAL{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SAINT-SIMON, CLAUDE\par \par Saint-Simon, Claude (The Younger),\par \par a French prelate, was born in 1695. In 1716 he became superior of the abbey of Jumieges. Being made bishop of Noyon, he was afterwards (in 1733) transferred to Metz: he there founded a seminary which bears his name, and in which he died, Feb. 29, 1760.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SAINT-PIERRE, CHARLES IRENEE CASTEL\par \par Saint-Pierre, Charles Irenee Castel,\par \par a French ecclesiastic, was born near Barfleur, Normandy, Feb. 18, 1658. He was educated by the Jesuits at Caen, and joined the priesthood. He went to Paris in 1686, and succeeded Bergeret in the Academy, 1695. He became chaplain of the bishop of Orleans in 1702, and received, through him, the abbey of Tiron. He, attended the Congress of Utrecht with cardinal Polignac in 1712. In some of his writings (Discours sur la Polysynodie) he severely judged Louis XIV, and advocated a constitutional government. For this he was expelled from the Academy; but an association known as the Club de l'Etresol gave him opportunities to expound his humanitarian schemes. It was closed seven years after (1731) by cardinal Fleury. He died April 29, 1743. Most of his writings are included in his Ouvrages de Politique et de Morale (Rotterdam, 1738-41, 18 vols.).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SAINT-SIMON, CLAUDE HENRI\par Saint-Simon, Claude Henri,\par Count of, one of the most eminent so called socialistic or communistic philosophers of modern times. He was born at Paris of an ancient and noble family, April 17, 1760. Grownc up in the midst of religious and social agitation, he entered the army and was made a captain at the age of seventeen. In 1779 he went to America, fought under Bouille and Washington, was captured with the count de Grasse in 1782, and, at the conclusion of the war, returned to France and was promoted to a colonelcy. In 1785 he visited Holland and endeavored to induce the government to join with France in an expedition against the English in the East Indies. He then went to Spain with an eccentric project of uniting Madrid by a canal with the sea. Failing in both schemes, he returned to Paris, and, finding the Revolution in full blaze, laid aside his aristocratic name, and fell in with the popular current. By speculating in confiscated property he found himself, in 1797, in possession of 144,000 francs in specie. With this capital he led, the next ten years, a life of travel, study, experiment, and pleasure, and, in the intervals, brooded over a fanciful scheme of regenerating human society. Locating himself in the Latin Quarter, Paris, he studied the whole circle of physical and social sciences. This was his theoretical education; but he wanted also an experimental education. In order to this, he endeavored to realize in his own person the whole circle of human experiences, joys, and sorrows. He entered society; he gave banquets and balls; he gambled, drank, and debauched himself; he courted contagious diseases; he tried to keep off old age by medicaments and paint; he set all moral law aside, justifying it by the maxim that the end sanctified the means. It was rightLVAL for him, the reformer, to do this. How could he apply the remedy if he had not himself felt the pain! He married in 1801, but, soon dissatisfied, he put away his young wife and sought out another. From this state of dissipation and theorizing he awoke just in time to find that his money was all gone, and that poverty was staring him in the face. The germs of Saint-Simon's system are given in his first publication, Lettres d'un Habitant a Geneve (1802). All men of thought were to form the spiritual order, all men of action the temporal order \emdash an adaptation to modern society of the mediaeval distinction of the Romish Church. This work was followed in 1807 by his Introduction aux Travaux Scientifiques du 19 ieme Siecle (Paris, 1807, 2 vols.). The novelty of these views attracted to Saint-Simon a circle of admiring youth, among whom were Olinde Rodrigues, Augustin Thierry, and Auguste Comte. This was the beginning of organized Saint-Simonism. In cooperation with these disciples, he now produced in rapid succession a Prospectus d'une Nouvelle Encyclopedie (1810): \emdash De la Reorganisation de la Societe Europeenne (1814): \emdash L'Industrie (1817): \emdash L'Organisateur (1819): \emdash Systeme Industriel (1821-22): \emdash Catchisme des Industriels (1823): Opinions Litteraires, Philosophiques et Industrielles (1825). But these ambitious works did not produce the revolution in society which Saint-Simon looked for. They fell still born from the press, or were left unread. The pretended savior of mankind was oppressed with poverty and discouragement. Reaching the lowest depths in March, 1823, he made a fruitless attempt at suicide, but succeeded only in blowing out one of his eyes. Recovering from his wounds and despondency, he now summoned up his last powers in an endeavor to give the world a new religion. The result was his Nouveau Clhristianisme (Paris, 1825). In this he used many thoughts from the Bible. God is the infinite, universal being; he is the all; everything is in him and by himLVAL; his central essence is love; he reveals himself as reason, understanding, wisdom, strength, beauty. Man is his highest revelation. Man's ideal essence is also love. The ideal condition of humanity is not the enslaving of the one by the other, but the improvement of each by the other, and the transformation of earth into a paradise. By this process all evil is to be overcome and all bliss to be attained; men are to yield obedience to the authority of wisdom; all are to labor for the happiness of all. But the God of Saint-Simon was a vague abstraction; the system was simply materialism with a slight tincture of naturalistic pantheism. Material well being was the ideal paradise; Saint-Simonism was hedonism; Christianity was but a transient form of man's endeavor to find happiness. Catholicism did a good work in its day, so also did Protestantism; but Saint-Simonism was now to supersede all previous systems. The new era was to be brought about by two principles \emdash an end and a means. The end was, the most rapid possible amelioration, physical and moral, of the condition of the class the most numerous and poor. The means was, to each man a vocation according to his capacity, and to each capacity a reward according to its works. The result aimed at was a sort of democratic epicureanism. It was an outbirth of a one-sided brooding over the conflict between capital and labor, noble and peasant, priest and devotee. It sprang of fanatical enthusiasm lor a vaguely comprehended good; it was devoid of high ethical thoughts; it had no just appreciation of the philosophy of history: hence it was of a highly artificial and sentimental character, and its speedy collapse was a matter of logical necessity. So soon, therefore, as Saint-Simon died (May 19, 1825), and the enthusiasm of his first disciples had occasion to come into contact with the practical facts of society, the system as a whole vanished into thin air. Dissensions arose. Rodrigues, Enfantin, Leroux, Bazard, Comte, each interpreted the master for hi LVAL mself, and each went his own way. The last remnant of organized Saint-Simonism was dispersed by decree of a civil court in August, 1832. After this date most of the members returned to the ranks of ordinary life, and the system became simply a matter of social history. See Carove, Der Saint-Simonismus (Leipzig, 1831); Veit, Saint-Simon (ibid. 1834); Matter, in Stud. u. Krit. (1832); Herzog, Real-Encyklop. 13, 317-320; Encycl. Brit. (8 th ed.), vol. 19.\par J. P. L. \par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par }  LVAL {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SAINTE-AULAIRE, MARTIAL LOUIS DE BEAUPOIL DE\par \par Sainte-Aulaire, Martial Louis De Beaupoil De,\par \par a French prelate, was born in 1720, and in 1759 he was called to the bishopric of Poitiers, and made deputy to the state assembly of 1789. He was averse to all innovations, and strongly opposed to the requirements of the law in obliging ecclesiastics to take the civil oath. In 1791, he went to England, and afterwards to Switzerland, where he died in 1798.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } fLVALv{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SAINTE-BEUVE, JACQUES DE\par Sainte-Beuve, Jacques De,\par a French theologian, was born at Paris, April 26, 1613. He received his degree in 1638 at the Sorbonne, and became royal professor of theology in that institution, where his learning gained for him so wide a reputation that he was considered one of the most ready casuists of his time. His refusal to subscribe to the censure passed upon two propositions of Arnauld caused him to lose his professorship in 1656. He was also deprived of his authority as preacher; but as he afterwards showed more submission to the dictates of the Church by signing the new formula prescribed Feb. 15, 1665, by Alexander VII, he was chosen theologian of the French clergy. This position brought him a pension, and also obliged him to write a Theologie Morale for the assembly at Mantes. Sainte-Beuve lived in Paris in retirement, but was sought for consultation by all the dignitaries of his time. It was said that he not only ruled all of one city, but a whole kingdom. He died Dec. 15, 1677. His writings are, De Confirmatione (1686): \emdash De Extrema Unctione (1686): \emdash Decisions de Cas de Conscience (1686). These words were edited after his death by his brother Jerome.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVAL{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SAINTE-MARTHE, CLAUDE DE\par \par Sainte-Marthe, Claude De,\par \par a French ascetic author, was born at Paris, June 8, 1620. He entered the priesthood in early life, and lived for a time in solitude. After being for some years cure of Mondeville, in the diocese of Sens, he entered the order of Port-Royal des Champs. Twice he was obliged to leave on account of persecution, and finally, in 1679, went to live at his chateau at Courbeville, where he died Oct. 11, 1690. His writings are, Defense des Religeuses de Port-Royal et de leur Directeurs (1667): \emdash Traites de Piete (1702): \emdash Lettres de Piete et de Morale (1709). He wrote part of the Morale Pratique des Jesuites, and was engaged in the translation of the New Testament by Mons. Besides these, he left many petty works, sermons, and letters.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } DLVALV{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SAITIS\par \par Saitis,\par \par in Greek mythology, is a surname of Minerva, under which she possessed a temple on the mountain Pontinus, near Lerna, in Argolis. This Saitic worship was doubtless derived from Sais, in Egypt, where the goddess Neith was adored, the latter service being incorporated with that of Minerva by the Greeks.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\ansicpg1252\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SAINTE-VALIER, JEAN BAPTISTE DE LACROIX DE\par \par Sainte-Valier, Jean Baptiste De Lacroix De,\par \par a French prelate, was born at Grenoble, Nov. 14, 1653. He became chaplain to Louis XIV, and in 1684 was appointed vicar-general of Quebec by bishop Laval. He arrived in Canada July 30, 1685, returned to France Nov. 1687; was consecrated bishop of Quebec, Jan. 25, 1688, and went back to Canada in August of the same year; founded the general hospital at Quebec, was captured by the English at sea while returning from a visit to France, July, 1704, and remained a prisoner until 1709. He died at Quebec, Dec. 26, 1727. He was the author of Etat Present de l'Eglise et de la Colonie Francaise dans la Nouvelle France (1688).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } XLVAL l{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SAJOTKATTA\par \par Sajotkatta,\par \par a term given by the North American Indians to those persons who enjoy the special favor of their patron spirits, and are through such aid enabled to discover things that are hidden, to foretell future events, to bewitch other persons, to perform extended journeys in the soul while absent from the body, etc. \emdash in short, the most cunning impostors in the tribes. The Iroquois equivalent for this title is Agottsinnachs, i.e. seers.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SAIVO OINIAK\par \par Saivo Oiniak,\par \par in Lapp mythology, was a mountain deity worshipped under the symbols of peculiarly shaped stones or mountains.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SAITONS\par \par Saitons,\par \par in Prussian mythology, were persons who inflicted wounds on themselves, and spilled their blood in the sacred groves, in order to make atonement to the gods for the sins of other people.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVALh {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SAIVAS\par Saivas,\par the general name given to those among the Hindus who worship Siva the Destroyer, one of the members of the Trimurti. The only form under which this deity is worshipped is that of the Linga, which they adore either in temples, in their houses, or on the side of a sacred stream. "The worship of Siva seems to have been, from a remote period, rather that of the learned and speculative classes than that of the masses of the people. In a renowned work called the Sankaradig-vijaya, or the victory of Sankara over the world, composed by Anandagiri, one of the disciples of Sankara, several subdivisions of the Saivas are named- \emdash viz. the Saivas, properly so called, who wore the impression of the Linga on both arms; the Raudras, who had a trident stamped on the forehead; the Ugras, who had the drum of Siva on their arms; the Bhaktas, with an impression of the Linga on their foreheads; the Jangamas, who carried a figure of the Linga on their heads; and the Pasupatas, who imprinted the same symbol on the forehead, breast, navel, and arms. The present divisions of the Saivas, however, are the following: the Dandins and Dasnami-Dandins; the Yogins; the Jangamas; the Paramahansas; the Aghorins; the Urdhabahus; the Akasmukhins and Nakhins; the Gudaras; the Rukharas, Sukharas, and Ukharas; the Karalingins; the Bramacharins; and the Nagas." Each division is characterized by some peculiarities of dress, self-torture, tenets, etc. (see Wilson, Religious Sects of the Hindus [Lond. 1862], 1, 188 sq.).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVAL {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SAKER, ALFRED\par \par Saker, Alfred\par \par a missionary to the "Dark Continent," was born in England, July 21, 1814. At the age of twenty-nine he was accepted by the Baptist Missionary Society for the mission on the west coast of Africa. In 1845 Saker settled at King Aqua's Town, the seat of a large tribe, on the left bank of the Cameroons River, and about twenty miles from its mouth. With great difficulty he mastered the Dualla language, spoken by the people among whom he lived. Early in November 1849, he baptized the first convert, and in the afternoon of the day a church was formed, consisting of the missionary and his wife, the native helpers, and the Dualla convert. Mr. Saker translated the Bible into the Dualla language, and died at Victoria, March 13, 1880, having spent thirty-four years in Africa.\par \par B. P. \par \par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SAKAR\par \par Sakar,\par \par in Mohammedan writers, is one of the seven hells, which serves as the place in which Parsees are punished for being what they are.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVAL* :{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SAKIA\par \par Sakia,\par \par in Arabian mythology, is a Mohammedan name for the god of a primeval race of giants and daemons who dwelt in Arabia Petraea, and who drew down rain to the earth.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SAKHTAR\par \par Sakhtar\par \par is the Parsee name for the heaven which encloses the heaven of the fixed stars, and which is immovable and inhabited by Ormuzd alone.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SAKHI BHAVAS\par \par Sakhi Bhavas,\par \par a Hindu sect who worship Radha as the personification of the Sakti or Krishna. They assume the female garb, and adopt not only the dress and ornaments, but the manners and occupations of women. The sect are held in little estimation, and are very few in number They occasionally lead a mendicant life, but are rarely met with. It is said that the only place where they are to be found in any number is Jaypur. There are a few at Benares, and a few scattered throughout several parts of Bengal.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVAL {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SAKTI\par \par Sakti,\par \par the active volition or omnipotent energy of any one of the members of the Hindu Trimurti. It may exist separately from the essence of Deity, and in such a case it is conceived to be invested with a species of personality, and to be capable of exerting an independent agency. When viewed as the cause of phenomena, or sensible appearances, it is called MAYA (q.v.). The Sakti is worshipped by many Hindus, being personated by a naked female, to whom meat and wine are offered.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SAKIN\par \par Sakin,\par \par in Scandinavian mythology, is one of the thirty-seven rivers of hell.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SAKKUTO, ABRAHAM BEN-SAMUEL\par Sakkuto, Abraham Ben-Samuel,\par a learned Jewish writer, was born at Salamanca about A.D. 1450. He was a celebrated astronomer, mathematician, historian, and lexicographer, and his distinguished talents secured for him the professional chair of astronomy at Saragossa. When he had to quit Spain, in 1492, he repaired to Portugal, where king Emmanuel appointed him chronographer and astronomer royal. On the banishment of the Jews from Portugal, he retired to Tunis. It was here that he completed, in 1504, the famous chronicle entitled <START HEBREW>/ys!j&Wy rp#s@<END HEBREW>\par (The Book of Genealogies), which comprises a chronological history of the Jews from the creation to A.M. 5260= A.D. 1500. In this elaborate work Sakkuto gives an account of the oral law as transmitted from Moses through the elders, prophets, sages, etc.; the acts and monuments of the kings of Israel, as well as of the surrounding nations, in chronological order; the Babylonian colleges at Sora and Pumbadita; the events which occurred during the period of the second Temple; the different sects of that period \emdash viz. the Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes, and Nazarites; the princes of the captivity, and the rectors of the colleges after the close of the Talmud; and the period down to the end of the 15 th century. Sakkuto's work, which is an encyclopedia of Jewish literature, was first published at Constantinople (1566): then, with many additions and glosses, at Cracow (1581), Amsterdam (1717), Konigsberg (1857), and from a MS. in the Bodleian Library, with many corrections, additions, etc., by Filipowski (Lond. 1857). Sakkuto also wrote a Rabbinic Aramaic lexicon to the Chaldee paraphrases, the Midrashim, and Talmud, entitled <START HEBREW>EWru*h* rp#s@l= tops*oh<END HEBREW>\par (i.e. SupplemeLVALnts to the Book Aruch), of which an account is given by Geiger in the Zeitschrift der D. M. G. 12, 144 sq. (Leips. 1858): \emdash <START HEBREW>vp#N#l^ hotm*<END HEBREW>\par (Sweet to the Soul), on the future state, the separation of spirit from body, etc. (Constantinople, 1516). See Furst, Bibl. Jud. 3, 200 sq.; Rossi, Dizionario Storico (Germ. transl.), p. 334; Steinschneider, Catalogus Librorum Hebr. in Bibl. Bodl. p. 706 sq.; Kitto, Cyclop. s.v.; Lindo, Hist. of the Jews, p. 267; Finn, Sephardim, p. 452; Da Costa, Israel and the Gentiles, p. 284; Etheridge, Introd. to Hebr. Literature, p. 451 sq.; Gratz, Gesch. d. Juden, 9, 18 sq., 418, 458, 474; Jost, Gesch. d. Judenth. u. s. Secten, 3, 113.\par B. P. \par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SAKTAS\par Saktas,\par the worshippers of the Sakti (q.v.), the female principle, or the divine nature in action, which is personified under different forms, according as the worshippers incline towards the adoration of Vishnu or Siva-Saraswati being the Sakti, or wife, of Brahma; Lakshmi the Sakti, or wife, of Vishnu; and Devi or Durga the Sakti, or wife, of Siva. Since Siva is the type of destruction, his energy, or wife, becomes still more the type of all that is terrific. As a consequence, her worship is based on the assumption that she can be propitiated only by practices which involve the destruction of life, and in which she herself delights. Such a worship leads to brutalism and licentiousness, and it became the worst of all forms which the various aberrations of the Hindu mind assumed. Appealing to the superstitions of the vulgar mind, it has its professors chiefly among the lowest classes. The works from which the tenets and rites of this religion are derived are known by the collective name of Tantras; but as in some of these works the ritual enjoined does not comprehend all the impure practices which are recommended in others, the sect became divided into two leading branches \emdash the Dakshinacharins and Vamacharins, or the followers of the right-hand and left-hand ritual. The Dakshinacharins are the more respectable of the two, although they indulge in practices contrary to the Vedic ritual. The Vamacharins adopt a ritual of the grossest impurities. Their object is, by reverencing Devi, who is one with Siva, to obtain supernatural powers in this life, and to be identified after death with Siva and his consort. The worship of Sakti requires the presence of a female as the living representative and type of the goddess, and is mostly celebrated in a mixed society \emdash the men represLVALenting Bhairava (or Siva as the Terrific), and the women Bhairavi (or Sakti as the Terrific). The ceremony generally terminated with the most scandalous orgies among the votaries. The members of the sect are very numerous, especially among the Brahminical caste. All classes are, however, admissible and equal at these ceremonies. The particular insignia of the Saktas are a semicircular line or lines on the forehead of red sanders or vermilion, or a red streak up the middle of the forehead, with a circular spot of red at the root of the nose. They use a rosary made of the seeds of the el ocarpus or of coral beads, but of no greater length than may be concealed in the hand. In worshipping they wear a piece of red silk round the loins and decorate themselves with garlands of crimson flowers. Two other sects are likewise mentioned as belonging to the Saktas, but it is doubtful whether they are still in existence. See Wilson, Sketch of Religious Sects of the Hindus, 1, 240 sq.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVAL{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SAKTI SODHANA\par \par Sakti Sodhana,\par \par a religious ceremony in connection with the Sakti, or personified energy of Deity among the Hindus. The object of worship in this case should be a dancing girl, a harlot, a washer woman, or barber's wife, a female of the Brahminical or Sudra tribe, a flower girl, or a milkmaid. The ceremony is performed at midnight with a party of eight, nine, or eleven couples. Appropriate mantras are to be used, according to the description of the person selected for the Sakti, who is then to be worshipped according to the prescribed form. She is placed disrobed, but richly ornamented, on the left of a circle described for the purpose, with various mantras and gesticulations, and is to be rendered pure by the repetition of different formulas. Being finally sprinkled over with wine, the act being sanctified by the peculiar mantra, the Sakti is now purified; but if not previously initiated, she is further to be made an adept by the communication of the radical mantra whispered thrice in her ear, when the object of the ceremony is complete.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } >LVAL RR{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SALA\par \par Sa'la\par \par (\par <START GREEK>Sala/\par <END GREEK>), the Greek form (Luke 3:35) of the name of the patriarch SALAH (q.v.), the father of Eber (Gen 10:24).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SAKYAMUNI\par \par Sakyamuni, Or Saint Sakya,\par \par a name of Buddha (q.v.), the founder of the Buddhist religion.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SAKUNTALA\par \par Sakuntala,\par \par one of the most pleasing female characters of Hindu mythology. She is mentioned as a water nymph in the Yajurveda, is the subject of a beautiful episode of the Mahabharata, and is spoken of in the Puranas. Her name has become specially familiar in Europe through the celebrated drama of Kalidasa, which, introduced to us by Sir William Jones in 1789, became the starting point of Sanskrit philology in Europe.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVALX {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SALAGRAMMA\par \par Salagramma,\par \par in Hindu mythology, was a stone into which Vishnu was transformed by the curse of a virtuous woman after he had violated her chastity in the guise of her husband.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SALACIA\par \par Salacia,\par \par in Roman mythology, was a goddess of the salt waters, the wife of Neptune, and mother of Triton.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SALADIN\par Saladin,\par the name given by Western writers to SALAH ED-DIN YUSSEF IBN-AYUB, the sultan of Egypt and Syria, and the founder of the Ayubite dynasty in those countries. As the great Moslem hero of the third crusade, and the beau-ideal of Moslem chivalry, he is one of the most interesting characters presented to us by the history of that period. He belonged to the Kurdish tribe of Ravad, and was born at Tekrit (a town on the Tigris, of which his father, Ayub, was kutwal, or governor, under the Seljuks) in 1137. Following the example of his father and uncle, he entered the service of Noureddin (q.v.), prince of Syria, and accompanied his uncle in his various expeditions to Egypt in command of Noureddin's army. Saladin was at this time much addicted to wine and gambling, and it was not till, at the head of a small detachment of the Syrian army, he was beleaguered in Alexandria by the combined Christians of Palestine and the Egyptians, that he gave indications of possessing the qualities requisite for a great captain. On the death of his uncle, Shirkoh, Saladin became grand-vizier of the Fatimite caliph, and received the title of El-melek el-nasr, "the Victorious Prince." But the Christians of Syria and Palestine, alarmed at the elevation of a Syrian emir to supreme power in Egypt, made a combined and vigorous attack on the new vizier. Saladin foiled them at Damietta, and transferred the contest to Palestine, taking several fortresses, and defeating his assailants near Gaza; but about the same time his new-born power was exposed to a still more formidable danger from his master, Noureddin, whose jealousy of the talents and ambition of his able young lieutenant required all the skill and wariness at Saladin's command to allay. On Noureddin's death in 1174, Saladin began a struggle with his suLVALccessor, which ended in his establishing himself as the sultan of Egypt and Syria, a title which was confirmed to him by the caliph of Bagdad. The next ten years were occupied in petty wars with the Christians, and in the arrangement and consolidation of his now extensive dominion. The plundering by the Christians of a rich pilgrim caravan on its way to Mecca, an infringement of the treaty with Saladin, brought down upon them the latter's vengeance. Their army suffered a dreadful defeat at Tuberias (July 4, 1187). The king of Jerusalem, the two grand-masters, and many other warriors of high rank were taken captive; Jerusalem was stormed (Oct. 2), and almost every other fortified place in Palestine was taken. The news of this great success of the infidels being brought to Western Europe, aroused the enthusiasm of the Christians to its highest pitch, and a powerful army of crusaders, headed by the kings of France and England, speedily made their appearance on the scene of strife. They captured Acre in 1191, and Richard Coeur-de-Lion, at the head of that portion of the crusading army which adhered to him, continued the war with success, twice defeated Saladin, took Caesarea and Jaffa, and finally obtained a treaty for three years (Aug. 1192), by which the coast from Jaffa to Tyre was yielded to the Christians. In the following year, Saladin died at Damascus of a disease under which he had long suffered. Saladin was not a mere soldier; his wise administration left behind it traces which endured for centuries; and the citadel of Cairo and sundry canals, dikes, and roads are existing evidences of his careful attention to the wants of his subjects. In him the warrior instinct of the Kurd was united to a high intelligence; and even his opponents frankly attribute to him the noblest qualities of mediaeval chivalry, invincible courage, inviolable fidelity to treaties, greatness of soul, piety, justice, and moderation.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003,LLVAL\ 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVAL&{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SALAH\par Sa'lah\par (Heb. She'lach, <START HEBREW>jl^v#<END HEBREW>\par , something sent forth, as a javelin or a sprout; Sept. and New Test. <START GREEK>\par Sala/<END GREEK>\par , but <START GREEK>\par Sa/la<END GREEK>\par in 1 Chron 1:24; A.V. "Shelah" in 1 Chron 1:18,24), the only named son of the patriarch Arphaxad, and the father of Eber (Gen 10:24; 11:12,13,14,15; 1 Chron 1:18,24), B.C. cir. 2478. See SALA. "The name is significant of extension, the cognate verb (<START HEBREW>hl^v*<END HEBREW>\par ) being applied to the spreading out of the roots and branches of trees (Jer 17:8; Ezek 17:6). It thus seems to imply the historical fact of the gradual extension of a branch of the Shemitic race from its original seat in Northern Assyria towards the river Euphrates. A place with a similar name in Northern Mesopotamia is noticed by Syrian writers (Knobel, in Genesis 11); but we can hardly assume its identity with the Salah of the Bible. Ewald (Gesch. 1, 354) and Von Bohlen (Introd. to Gels. 2, 205) regard the name as purely fictitious, the former explaining it as a son or offspring, the latter as the father of a race. That the name is significant does not prove it fictitious, and the conclusions drawn by these writers are unwarranted."\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVAL| {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SALAMANDER\par \par Salamander,\par \par a kind of imaginary beings belonging rather to the physico-philosophical systems of the Cabalists than to the mythology of any particular people. They were supposed to inhabit fire as their proper element, as the Undines made their home in water; and this idea probably gave rise to the notion that the amphibious, lizard-like reptiles of the species which are dotted with black, yellow, or red spots are likewise able to resist the destructive power of fire.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SALAI, ANDREA\par \par Salai, Or Salaino, Andrea,\par \par an Italian painter, was born about the year 1500, but the time of his death is not known. From an humble position in the studio of Leonardo da Vinci, he finally became the favorite pupil of his master, and his pictures show the same softness which characterizes those of the great artist. In Milan may be seen his Holy Family and St. John in the Desert, and at Paris an Adoration of the Magi, besides many others scattered through Europe.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVAL {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SALASADAI\par \par Salasad'ai\par \par (\par <START GREEK>Salasadai=\par <END GREEK>, v.r. \par <START GREEK>Sarasadai=\par <END GREEK>, etc., a corruption from the Sept. \par <START GREEK>Sourisadai=\par <END GREEK>, for Zurishaddai, in Num 1:6), a name given (Judg 8:1) as that of an Israelite, father of Samael, in the ancestry of Judith (q.v.).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SALAMINIUS\par \par Salaminius,\par \par in Greek mythology, is a surname of Jupiter, derived from Salamis, in Cyprus, where a temple was erected to him by Teucer.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SALAMIS\par Salamis,\par in Greek mythology, was a daughter of the river god Asopus, whose name was transferred to the island of Salamis, and who became by Neptune the mother of Cychreus.\par \par Sal'amis\par \par (<START GREEK>\par Salami/$<END GREEK>\par , perhaps from <START GREEK>\par a%l$<END GREEK>\par , salt, as being on the sea), a city at the east end of the island of Cyprus, and the first place visited by Paul and Barnabas on the first missionary journey after leaving the mainland at Seleucia. See PAUL. Two reasons why they took this course obviously suggest themselves, viz. the fact that Cyprus (and probably Salamis) was the native place of Barnabas, and the geographical proximity of this end of the island to Antioch. But a further reason is indicated by a circumstance in the narrative (Acts 13:5). Here alone, among all the Greek cities visited by Paul, we read expressly of "synagogues" in the plural. Hence we conclude that there were many Jews in Cyprus. This is in harmony with what we read elsewhere. To say nothing of possible mercantile relations in very early times See CHITTIM, Jewish residents in the island are mentioned during the period when the Seleucidse reigned at Antioch (1 Macc 15:23). In the reign of Augustus, the Cyprian copper mines were farmed to Herod the Great (Josephus, Ant. 1, 4, 5), and this would probably attract many Hebrew families: to which we may add evidence to the same effect from Philo (Legat. ad Caium) at the very time of Paul's journey. Again, at a later period, in the reign of Trajan, we are informed of dreadful tumults here, caused by a vast multitude of Jews, in the course of which "the whole populous city of Salamis became a desert" (Milman, Hist. of the Jews, 3, 111, 112). Hadrian, afterwards emperor, came to the aid of the Cypriots. He overcamLVALe the Jews, and expelled them from the island, forbidding any of that nation to approach its coasts; and so strictly was this carried out that if a Jew were ever cast by shipwreck on the island, he was put to death. We may well believe that from the Jews of Salamis came some of those early Cypriot Christians who are so prominently mentioned in the account of the first spreading of the Gospel beyond Palestine (Acts 11:19,20) even before the first missionary expedition. Mnason (Acts 21:16) might be one of them. Nor ought Mark to be forgotten here. He was at Salamis with Paul and his own kinsman Barnabas; and again he was there with the same kinsman after the misunderstanding with Paul and the separation (15:39). See MARK.\par \par Salamis was not far from the modern Famagosta. Legend ascribed its origin to the Aeacid Teucer. After various fortunes in the connections of the Greek states, it finally fell under the power of the Ptolemies. It was situated on a bight of the coast, a little to the north of a river called the Pediaeus, on low ground, which is, in fact, a continuation of the plain (anciently called Salaminia) running up into the interior towards the place where Nicosia, the present capital of Cyprus, stands. We must notice in regard to Salamis that its harbor is spoken of by Greek writers as very good; and that one of the ancient tables lays down a road between this city and Paphos (q.v.), the next place which Paul and Barnabas visited on their journey. Salamis again has rather an eminent position in subsequent Christian history. Constantine or his successor rebuilt it and called it Constantia, and, while it had this name, Epiphanius was one of its bishops. In the reign of Heraclius the new town was destroyed by the Saracens. See CYPRUS.\par Very little of the ancient city is now standing; but on the outside of the city recent travelers have seen the remains of a building two hundred feet in length, and six or eight feet high; also a stone church and portions of an aqueduct by which water wadLVALts brought to the city from a distance of thirty miles. Of the travelers who have visited and described Salamis we must particularly mention Pococke (Descr. of the East, 2, 214) and Ross (Reisen nach Kos, Halikarnassos, Rhodos, und Cypern, p. 118-125). These travelers notice, in the neighborhood of Salamis, a village named St. Sergius, which is doubtless a reminiscence of Sergius Paulus, and a large Byzantine church bearing the name of St. Barnabas, and associated with a legend concerning the discovery of his relics. The legend will be found in Cedrenus (1, 618, ed. Bonn). See BARNABAS; See SERGIUS PAULUS. See Smith, Dict. of Class. Geog. 2, 876 sq; Conybeare and Howson, Life and Epistles of St. Paul, 1, 169; Lewin, St. Paul, 1, 120 sq. On the coins of Salamis, see Eckhel, 3, 87.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SALARY\par Salary\par (Lat. salarium, salt-money, salt being part of the pay of the Roman soldier), an annual or periodical payment for services. Nothing like the provisions of the Levitical law, for the maintenance of the clergy, was known in the primitive Church. The duty, however, of the Church to maintain her religious teachers is implied in the New Test. "The workman is worthy of his meat," says Christ (Matt 10:10), to which the apostle appeals,"Even so hath the Lord ordained that they which preach the Gospel should live of the Gospel" (1 Cor 9:14). In the apostolic age the maintenance of the clergy consisted merely in the supply of their personal wants (2 Cor 11:7,8; Phil 4:16-18). There were probably in early times no fixed stipends for the ministers because the Church did not possess property; and when at length specific provision was made for the support of the clergy, it was not by any ordinance of the Church, but by the law of the State. Fees paid to the clergy for services rendered were called sportoe, sportella, and sportule; probably in allusion to the bringing of the first fruits in a basket, sportula. They were not the same as the jura stole, surplice fees (q.v.), which were unknown in the primitive Church. It was an established rule that no fees should be received for religions services. The first departure from it began with the celebration of religious ordinances in a private manner, in which the individual, at whose request this private celebration was performed, was required to pay something as an equivalent for the public and voluntary oblations that would otherwise have been made. So far as the clergy of the primitive Church can be said to have had any salary, it was paid, either according to their necessities or according to some general rule, from the treasury of the Church, :LVALJwhich was supplied chiefly from voluntary contributions. Various rules were, from time to time, given for the distribution of funds. One required that they should be divided into three equal parts, one of which was to be paid to the bishops, another to the clergy, and the third was to be expended in making repairs, etc.\par In the 4 th century the Church and clergy came into the possession of real property. By a law of Constantine in the year 321, the clergy were permitted to receive donations and bequests. Liberal grants were also made by Constantine and by Gratian, Theodosius the Great, and other emperors. By other means also the revenues of the Church were enriched: 1. On the demolition of heathen temples by Theodosius the Great and his sons, the proceeds were applied to the benefit of the clergy, or appropriated to religious uses. 2. On the same principle, the property belonging to heretics was sequestrated. 3. The property of such clergy as died without heirs, and of all who relinquished their duties without sufficient cause, became the property of the Church. 4. The Church was made heir-at-law of all martyrs and confessors who died without near relations. 5. By tithes and first fruits, which, however, were unknown until the 4 th or 5 th century. Chlarlemagne first required the payment of tithes by statute law, and enforced the duty by severe penalties. His successors confirmed and completed the system of tithe by law which was subsequently introduced into England and Sweden. In the Eastern Church the support of religion was never legally enforced, but was urged as a religious duty, and tithes were paid as a voluntary offering. See Coleman, Christ. Antiquities, p. 148 sq.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVAL{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SALAT, JACOB\par \par Salat, Jacob\par \par a Roman Catholic theologian and philosopher of Germany, was born August 24, 1766. In 1801 he was professor of ethics and pastoral theology at Munich, in 1807 professor of moral philosophy at Landshut, and died in 1851. He published, Die Religionsphilosophie darngestellt (Landshut, 1811): \emdash Grundlinien der Religionsphilosophie (Sulzbach, 1819): \emdash Grundlinien der Moralphilosophie (Munich, 1827): \emdash Versuche uber Supranaturalismus und Mysticismus (Sulzbach, 1823): \emdash Sokrates, oder uber den neuesten Gegensatz zwischen Christenthum und Philosophie (1820): \emdash 1 st der Priestercolibat ein Ideal? (Stuttgart, 1833): \emdash Die literarische Stellung der Protestanten zu den Katholiken (1831): \emdash Aufschluss uber den Ultrakatholicismus (1833): \emdash Schelling und Hegel (Heidelberg, 1842). See Zuchold, Bibl. Theol. s.v.; Winer, Handbuch der theol. Lit. 1:285, 288, 370, 375, 466, 723.\par \par B. P. \par \par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVAL.{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SALATHIEL\par \par Sala'thiel\par \par (Heb. Shealtiel', <START HEBREW>la@yT!l=a^V=\par <END HEBREW>, asked of God; Sept. and New Test. \par <START GREEK>Salaqih/l\par <END GREEK>; more correctly, "Shealtiel," in the A.V. in Ezra 3:2; Neh 12:1; Hag 1:12,14; 2:2). It is customary to distinguish two of this name, from the apparent difference of parentage in Matt 1:12 and Luke 3:27, but probably they were one, and the manner of keeping the Jewish records will readily suggest methods of reconciling the passages (comp. Strong, Harmony and Expos. of the Gospels, p. 16). See GENEALOGY OF JESUS CHRIST. Salathiel was the son of Jeconiah, perhaps grandson of Neri (Luke 3:27), and father of Zerubbabel (1 Chron 3:17; Ezra 3:2; Neh 12:1; Hag 1:12,14; 2:2; Matt 1:12; Luke 3:27. See SHEALTIEL.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SALCAH\par Sal'cah\par (Heb. Salkah', <START HEBREW>hk*l=s^<END HEBREW>\par , from an Arabic root, signifying migration; Sept. <START GREEK>\par Selxa/<END GREEK>\par , v.r. <START GREEK>\par Sela/, Sekcai/<END GREEK>\par , <START GREEK>\par \~)Elxa/<END GREEK>\par , etc.; A.V. "Salchah," in Deut 3:10 [Targum Pseudo-Jon. gives it <START HEBREW>ayqwwls<END HEBREW>\par , i.e. Seleucia; though which Seleucia they can have supposed was here intended it is difficult to imagine]), a city named in the early records of Israel as the extreme limit of Bashan (Deut 3:10; Josh 13:11). This city appears to have been one of the old capitals of Og's kingdom (Josh 12:5). A statement in 1 Chron 5:11 seems to show that Salcah was upon the eastern confines of both Manasseh and Gad, although it was really beyond the bounds of Palestine as occupied by the Hebrews. On another occasion the name seems to denote a district rather than a town (Josh 12:5). In later Jewish history the name is never mentioned, and the probability is that the city soon fell into the hands of the original inhabitants. By Eusebius and Jerome it is merely mentioned, apparently without their having had any real knowledge of it.\par Salcah is, doubtless, identical with the present town of Sulkhad, which stands at the southern extremity of the Jebel Hauran, twenty miles south of Kunawat (the ancient Kenath), which was the southern outpost of the Leja, the Argob of the Bible. Sulkhad is named by both the Christian and Mohammedan historians of the Middle Ages (Will. of Tyre, 16, 8, "Selcath;" Abulfeda [Tab. Syr. p. 106; also in Schultens's Index Geogr.] "Sarchad"). It was visited by Burckhardt (Syria, Nov. 22, 1810), Seetzen, and others, and more recently by Porter, who describes it at some length (Five Years in Damascus, 2, 176-216). Its identiLVALfication with Salcah seems to be due to Gesenius (Burckhardt, Reisen, p. 507). Immediately below Sulkhad commences the plain of the great Euphrates desert, which appears to stretch, with hardly an undulation, from here to Busra, on the Persian Gulf. The town is of considerable size, from two to three miles in circumference; it occupies a strong and commanding position on a conical hill. On the summit stands the castle, a circular building of great size and strength, surrounded by a deep moat. The external walls are still tolerably perfect, and were evidently founded not later than the Roman age, though the upper portions are Saracenic. The sides of the cone immediately beneath the walls are steep and smooth, and are covered with light cinders and blocks of lava, showing that it was originally a volcano. The city occupies the lower slopes on the south, extending to the plain. A large number of the houses are still perfect, with their stone roofs and stone doors, though they have been long deserted. On the walls of the castle, and among the ruins, there are Greek inscriptions, bearing dates equivalent to A.D. 246 and 370; while an Arabic record on the walls of a large mosque shows that it was built in the year A.D. 1224, and a minaret near it about four centuries later. The latter appears to be the newest building in the place. The country round Salcah is now without inhabitants; but traces of former industry and wealth, and of a dense population, are visible. The roads, the fields, the terraces, the vineyards, and the fig-orchards are there, but man is gone. The view from the summit of the castle of Salcah is one of the most remarkable for desolation in all Palestine. See Porter, Handbook for Syria, p. 488; Schwarz, Palestine, p. 222. See BASHAN.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVAL,{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SALEMA\par \par Salema,\par \par in Arabic mythology, is the god of health worshipped by a race of giants who are said to have inhabited Arabia.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SALE, JOHN\par \par Sale, John,\par \par a Methodist Episcopal minister, and "one of the most heroic evangelists and founders of Western Methodism," was born in Virginia in 1769. In 1796 he joined the itinerancy, and was sent to Swanino Circuit, "in the wilds of Virginia, where he had his courage and fidelity tested in breasting the dangers and hardships of a pioneer preacher." His next circuit was the Mattamuskeet, Va.; in 1799 he went to Holston Circuit; in 1803, to the northwestern territory of Virginia, where, for nearly a quarter of a century, he alternated between Ohio and Kentucky, a successful circuit preacher and a commanding presiding elder. He died Jan. 15, 1827, exclaiming, "My last battle is fought, and the victory sure! hallelujah!" Mr. Sale was an eminently useful man, and he adorned every relation that he sustained to the Church. See Minutes of Conferences, 1, 572; Stevens, Hist. of the M.E. Church, 4, 106, 148, 149, 338, 431; Sprague, Annals of the Amer. Pulpit, 7; Finley, Sketches, p. 185, 186; Bangs, Hist. of the M.E. Church, 2, 111.\par \par \par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\ansicpg1252\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SALEM\par Sa'lem\par (Heb. Shalem', <START HEBREW><l@v*<END HEBREW>\par , peaceful, i.e. uninjured, or whole, as often) occurs in a few passages of Scripture, and in several other notices, as the name of one or more places, although some writers doubt whether it should not in all cases be translated as a simple appellative. It has likewise been usually regarded as commemorated in the name Jerusalem. See SHALEM.\par 1. (Sept. <START GREEK>\par Salh/m<END GREEK>\par , and so N.T.) The place of which Melchizedek was king (Gen 14:18; Heb 7:1,2). Some have inferred, from the circumstances of the narrative (e.g. Bochart, Phaleg, 2, 4; Ewald, Gesch. 1, 410), that it lay between Damascus and Sodom; but although it is said that the king of Sodom \emdash who had probably regained his own city after the retreat of the Assyrians went out to meet (<START HEBREW>tar*q=l!<END HEBREW>\par ) Abraham, yet it is also distinctly stated that this was after Abraham had returned (<START HEBREW>wbWv yr@j&a^<END HEBREW>\par ) from the slaughter of the kings. The only clue is that afforded by the mention of the valley of Shaveh (q.v.), which seems to have been the "King's Dale" near Jerusalem. See ABSALOM'S PILLAR. Dr. Wolff, in a striking passage, implies that Salem was \emdash what the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews understood it to be \emdash a title, not the name of a place. "Melchizedek of old... had a royal title: he was 'King of Righteousness' (in Hebrew, Melchi-zedek); he was also 'King of Peace' (Melek-Salem). When Abraham came to his tent, he came forth with bread and wine, and was called 'the Priest of the Highest,' and Abraham gave him a portion of his spoil. Just so Wolff's friend, in the desert of Meru, in the kingdom of Khiva ... whose name is Abd-er-Rahman, which means 'Slave of the LVALmerciful God,' ... has also a royal title. He is called Shahe-Adaalat, 'King of Righteousness' \emdash the same as Melchizedek in Hebrew. When he makes peace between kings, he bears the title Shahe Sulkh, 'King of Peace' (in Hebrew, Melek-Salem)."\par The main opinion, however, current from the earliest ages of interpretation, is that of the Jewish commentators, who, from Onkelos (Targum) and Josephus (War, 6, 10; Ant. 1, 10, 2; 7, 3, 2) to Kalisch (Comm. on Genesis p. 360), with one voice affirm that Salem is Jerusalem, on the ground that Jerusalem is so called in Ps 76:2, the Psalmist, after the manner of poets, or from some exigency of his poem, making use of the archaic name in preference to that in common use (see Reland, Paloestina, p. 833). The Christians of the 4 th century held the same belief with the Jews, as is evident from an expression of Jerome ("nostri omnes," Ep. ad Evangelum, \'a7 7), and Eusebius (in the Onomast. s.v.).\par Here it is sufficient to say\par (1) that Jerusalem suits the circumstances of the narrative rather better than any place farther north, or more in the heart of the country. It would be quite as much in Abraham's road, going from the sources of Jordan to his home under the oaks of Hebron, and it would be more suitable for the visit of the king of Sodom. In fact, we know that, in later times at least, the usual route from Damascus avoided the central highlands of the country and the neighborhood of Shechem, where Salim is now shown (see Pompey's route in Josephus, Ant. 14:3, 4; 4, 1).\par (2) It is, perhaps, some confirmation of the identity \emdash at any rate, it is a remarkable coincidence \emdash that the king of Jerusalem in the time of Joshua should bear the title Adoni-zedek \emdash almost precisely the same as that of Melchizedek.\par 2. Jerome himself, however, is not of the same opinion. He states (Ep. ad Evang. \'a7 7) without hesitation, though apparently (as just observed) alone in his belief, that the Salem of Melchizedek was not Jerusalem, LVALbut a town near Scythopolis, which in his day was still called Salem, and where the vast ruins of the palace of Melchizedek were still to be seen. Elsewhere (Onomast. s.v. Salem) he locates it more precisely at eight Roman miles from Scythopolis, and gives its then name as Salumias. Further, he identifies this Salem with the Salim (q.v.) (<START GREEK>\par Salei/m<END GREEK>\par ) of John the Baptist. That a Salem existed where Jerome thus places it there need be no doubt; indeed, the name has been recovered at the identical distance below Beisan by Van de Velde, at a spot otherwise suitable for Aenon. But that this Salem, Salim, or Salumias was the Salem of Melchizedek is even more uncertain than that Jerusalem was so. The ruins were probably as much the ruins of Melchizedek's palace as the remains at Ramet el-Khalil, three miles north of Hebron, are those of "Abraham's house." Nor is the decision assisted by a consideration of Abraham's homeward route. He probably brought back his party by the road along the Ghor as far as Jericho, and then, turning to the right, ascended to the upper level of the country in the direction of Mamre; but whether he crossed the Jordan at the Jisr Benat Yakub, above the Lake of Gennesaret, or at the Jisr Mejamia, below it, he would equally pass by both Scythopolis and Jerusalem. At the same time, it must be confessed that the distance of Salem (at least eighty miles from the probable position of Sodom) makes it difficult to suppose that the king of Sodom can have advanced so far to meet Abraham, adds its weight to the statement that the meeting took place after Abraham had returned \emdash not during his return, and is thus so far in favor of Salem being Jerusalem. See MELCHIZEDEK.\par 3. Professor Ewald (Geschichte, 1, 410, note) pronounces that Salem is a town on the further side of Jordan, on the road from Damascus to Sodom, quoting at the same time John 3:23; but there seems to be no authority for this, nor any notice of the existence of the name in that directiLVALon either in former or recent times.\par 4. A tradition given by Eupolemus, a writer known only through fragments preserved in the Proeparatio Evangelica of Eusebius (9, 17), differs in some important points from the Biblical account. According to this, the meeting took place in the sanctuary of the city Argarizin, which is interpreted by Eupolemus to mean "the Mountain of the Most High." "Argarizin" (Pliny uses nearly the same form \emdash Argaris, H.N. 5, 14) is, of course, har-Gerizzim, Mount Gerizim. The source of the tradition is, therefore, probably Samaritan, since the encounter of Abraham and Melchizedek is one of the events to which the Samaritans lay claim for Mount Gerizim. But it may also proceed from the identification of Salem with Shechem, which, lying at the foot of Gerizim, would easily be confounded with the mountain itself. See SHALEM.\par 5. A Salem is mentioned in Jdt 4:4 among the places which were seized and fortified by the Jews on the approach of Holofernes. "The valley of Salem," as it appears in the A.V. (<START GREEK>\par to\\n au)lw=na Salh/m<END GREEK>\par ), is possibly, as Reland has ingeniously suggested (Palaest. p. 977), a corruption of <START GREEK>\par ei)$ au)lw=na ei)$ Salh/m<END GREEK>\par \emdash "into the plain to Salem." If <START GREEK>\par Au/lw/n<END GREEK>\par is here, according to frequent usage, the Jordan valley, then the Salem referred to must surely be that mentioned by Jerome and already noticed. But in this passage it may be with equal probability the broad plain of the Mukhna which stretches from Ebal and Gerizim, on the one hand, to the hills on which Salim stands, on the other, which is said to be still called the "plain of Salim" (Porter, Handbook, p. 340 a), and through which runs the central north road of the country. Or, as is perhaps still more likely, it refers to another Salim near Zerin (Jezreel), and to the plain which runs up between those two places as far as Jenin, and which lay directly in the route of the Assyrian army.LVAL There is nothing to show that the invaders reached as far into the interior of the country as the plain of the Mukhna. The other places enumerated in the verse seem, as far as they can be recognized, to be points which guarded the main approaches to the interior (one of the chief of which was by Jezreel and Engannin), not towns in the interior itself, like Shechem or the Salem near it. See JUDITH, BOOK OF.\par 6. (Sept. <START GREEK>\par e)n ei)rh/nh|<END GREEK>\par ; Vulg. in pace), Ps 76:2. It seems to be agreed on all hands that Salem is here employed for Jerusalem, but whether as a mere abbreviation to suit some exigency of the poetry and point the allusion to the peace (shalom) which the city enjoyed through the protection of God, or whether, after a well known habit of poets, it is an antique name preferred to the more modern and familiar one, is a question not yet decided. The latter is the opinion of the Jewish commentators, but it is grounded on their belief that the Salem of Melchizedek was the city which afterwards became Jerusalem. (See above.) See a remarkable passage in Geiger's Urschrift, etc. p. 74-76. The antithesis in ver. 1 between "Judah" and "Israel" might seem to some to imply that some sacred place in the northern kingdom is here contrasted with Zion, the sanctuary of the south. If there were in the Bible any sanction to the identification of Salem with Shechem (noticed above), the passage might be taken as referring to the continued relation of God to the kingdom of Israel. But the parallelism is rather one of agreement than contrast. Hence, Zion the sanctuary being named in the one member of the verse, it is tolerably certain that Salem, in the other, must denote the same city See JERUSALEM.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SALESIANS\par Salesians,\par an order of recluse nuns, otherwise known as Visitants. Its founder was count Francis of Sales (q.v.), who conceived the idea of providing an asylum for widows and other females in distress, and of devoting them to the service of the sick and to a religious life. A vision encouraged him to carry forward his purpose, and the active cooperation of a noble widow (saint), Francisca du Chantal, enabled him to succeed. The order of the Visitation of Mary, or Salesians, was the result. The first house for their use was secured in 1610, at Annecy, and the second in 1615, at Lyons. Their rules (given by St. Francis) were mild, and intended rather to promote spiritual dispositions and works of mercy than to encourage outward asceticism. The sisters were required to take only the simple vows; strict retirement was imposed only during the period of the novitiate; their apparel was not required to be different from that of ordinary females, except that it should be of black color and modest appearance. In 1618 pope Paul V raised the congregation into an order De Visitatione B.V.M. under the rule of St. Augustine, and conferred on it all the privileges accorded to other religious orders, making its special mission the training of female children. The convents were placed under the supervision of the diocesan bishops by the will of their founder. Their number increased rapidly, the first being established at Paris, in 1619; thirteen before Francis died in 1622, and eighty-seven during the life of mother du Chantal (died 1641). The order gradually spread also over Italy, Germany, Poland, Austria, Switzerland, Syria, and North America. It is now one of the most important in the Roman Catholic Church, having one hundred convents with at least three thousand inmates.\par The members of the LVAL order are classed as choristers, associates, and house companions, the first of which classes performs the duties of the choir, while the last takes charge of the domestic administration of the house. The modern rule is not especially strict, but few special fasts being prescribed. The habit of the order is black, with a black band crossing the forehead, and a small white breast-cloth pendent from the neck, under which a silver cross is suspended from a black band.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } 8LVALN |L{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SALIER, JACQUES\par \par Salier, Jacques,\par \par a French theologian, was born at Saulien in the year 1615. He belonged to the order of the Minimes. After having taught theology, he became provincial, and finally assistant of the general of his order. He died at Dijon, Aug. 20, 1707. He wrote, De Eucharisticis (1687): \emdash Cacocephalus (1694): \emdash Pensees sur le Paradis et sur l'Ame Raisonnable, in which there is very little about paradise.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\ansicpg1252\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SALIAN, JACQUES\par \par Salian, Jacques,\par \par a learned French Jesuit, was born at Avignon in 1557. He was admitted in 1578 into the Institute of St. Ignatius, where he taught theology, and also in the province of Lyons. He was rector of the College of Besaneon, and while on a visit to Paris died of apoplexy, Jan. 23, 1640. His principal work is entitled Annales Ecclesiastici V.T. (1619).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SALGANEUS\par \par Salganeus,\par \par in Greek mythology, is an appellative of Apollo, derived from the Boeotian town of the same name.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SALIG, CHRISTIAN AUGUST\par Salig, Christian August,\par a German theologian of great learning and mystical tendency, was born near Magdeburg, April 6, 1692. His father, a pastor, instructed him in Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. In 1707 he bealan to study at Halle, and heard lectures from A.H. Franke, P. Anton, Christian Wolf, and others, also taking frequent part in public disputations against Socinianism and Romanism. From 1710 to 1712 he studied at Jena, under J.F. Buddaeus, J.A. Danz, and others, and took his master's degree. In 1714 he delivered lectures, philosophical, theological, and historical, at Halle. The same year he published Philosophumena Veterum et Recentiorum de Anima et ejus Immortalitate, at Halle, a work which drew to him the attention of Thomasius. In 1717 he became conrector of the school at Wolfenbuttel, and entered upon his duties with a dissertation, De Nexu Corruptionis ac Instaurationis Ecclesioe ac Scholarum. Here the excellent library furnished him welcome means of productive study. In 1723 he issued his work De Eutychianismo ante Eutychem, in which he treated also of the history of Nestorianism. For this work he was fiercely accused of Nestorianism himself. The second centenary of the Augsburg Confession occasioned the preparation of Salig's masterwork, a complete history of the Augsburg Confession and Apology (Halle, 1730). In 1733 he issued an additional work on the history of Protestantism outside of Lutheranism. In 1735 he published an account of the inner growth and strifes of Lutheranism, which was bitterly assailed because of its frank presentation of men and things as they actually were. As a continuation of his labors in the same field, he undertook a complete history of the Council of Trent, but did not live to finish it. He died at Wolfenbuittel in 1735. He wrote,` LVALp also, Nodus Proedestinationis Solutus. See Ballenstedt, De Vita et Obitu C.A. Saligii (Helmst. 1738); Herzog, Real-Encylk. 13, 323-325.\par J. P. L. \par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } zLVALn{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SALIMBENI, ARCANGELO\par \par Salimbeni, Arcangelo,\par \par an Italian painter, was born at Sienna, and flourished from the year 1557 to 1579. He was a pupil of Sozzi, and enriched his native town with a great number of pictures. His best are a Holy Family and a Martyrdom of St. Peter. \par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SALII\par \par Salii\par \par were priests of Mars Gradivus, and are said to have been instituted by Numa. They were twelve in number, chosen from the patriarchs, and had charge of the sacred shields (ancilia). which were kept in the Temple of Mars on the Palatine Hill. The distinguishing dress of the salii was an embroidered tunic bound with a brazen belt, the trabea, and the apex, also worn by the flamines. Each had a sword by his side, and in his right hand a spear or staff. The festival of Mars was celebrated by the salii on the 1 st of March, and for several successive days, on which occasion they were accustomed to go through the city in their official dress, carrying the ancilia, singing and dancing. The members of the collegium were elected by co-optation. Tullus Hostilius established another collegium of salii. These were twelve in number, were chosen from the patricians, and appear to have been dedicated to the service of Quirinus. They were called the Salii Collini, Agonales, or Agonenses. \par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\ansicpg1252\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SALIM\par Sa'lim\par (<START GREEK>\par Salei/m<END GREEK>\par v.r. <START GREEK>\par Salleim<END GREEK>\par ; Vulg. Salim), a place named (John 3:23) to denote the situation of Aenon, the scene of John's last baptisms \emdash Salim being the well known town or spot, and Aenon a place of fountains, or other water, near it. Christ was in Judaea (ver. 22), and the whole scope of the passage certainly conveys the impression that John was near him, and consequently Salim was either in Judaea or close to its borders. The only direct testimony we possess is that of Eusebius and Jerome, who both affirm unhesitatingly (Onom. "Aenon") that it existed in their day near the Jordan, eight Roman miles south of Scythopolis. Jerome adds (under "Salem") that its name was then Salumias. Elsewhere (Ep. ad Evangelum, \'a7 7, 8) he states that it was identical with the Salem of Melchizedek. A tradition is mentioned by Reland (Paloestina, p. 978) that Salim was the native place of Simon Zelotes. This in itself seems to imply that its position was, at the date of the tradition, believed to be nearer to Galilee than to Judsea. Various attempts have been more recently made to determine the locality of this interesting spot, but the question can hardly yet be regarded as definitely settled.\par 1. Some (as Alford, Greek Test. ad loc.) propose Shilhim and Ain, in the arid country far in the south of Judaea, entirely out of the circle of associations of John or our Lord. Others identify it with the Shalim of 1 Sam 9:4; but this latter place is itself unknown, and the name in Hebrew contains <START HEBREW>u<END HEBREW>\par , to correspond with which the name in John should be <START GREEK>\par Segalei/m<END GREEK>\par or <START GREEK>\par Saalei/m<END GREEK>\par .\par 2. Dr. Robinson (Bibl. Researches, LVAL3, 333) suggests the modern village of Salim, three miles east of Nablufs; but this is no less out of the circle of John's ministrations, and is too near the Samaritans; and although there is some reason to believe that the village contains "two sources of living water" (ibid. p. 298), yet this is hardly sufficient for the abundance of deep water implied in the narrative. A writer in the Colonial Ch. Chronicles No. 126, 464, who concurs in this opinion of Dr. Robinson, was told of a village an hour east (?) of Salim "named Ain-un, with a copious stream of water." Lieut. Conder says (Tent Work in Palestine, 1, 92) that Wady Farah, in the locality in question, contains a succession of little but perennial springs, from which the water gushes out in a fine stream over a stony bed, and that the village of Ain-un lies five miles north of the stream.\par 3. Dr. Barclay (City of the Great King, p. 564) is filled with an "assured conviction" that Salim is to be found in Wady Seleim, and Aenon in the copious springs of Ain Farah (ibid. p. 559), among the deep and intricate ravines some five miles northeast of Jerusalem. This certainly has the name in its favor, and, if the glowing description and pictorial wood-cut of Dr. Barclay may be trusted, has water enough (<START GREEK>\par u%data polla/<END GREEK>\par ) and of sufficient depth for the purpose. But the proximity to Jerusalem is a decided objection. See ENON.\par 4. There is said to be a village called Salim in the plain of Mukhna, east of Nablis, which is probably the Shalem of Gen 33:18 (Porter, Handbook, p. 340; Robinson, Bibl. Researches, 2, 279); but it is too far north to suit the Gospel narrative; and, besides, it cannot be said of it "there is much water there." See SHALEM.\par 5. The name of Salim has been lately discovered by Van de Velde (Syr. and Pal. 2, 345) in a position exactly in accordance with the notice of Eusebius, viz. six English miles south of Beisan and two miles west of the Jordan. On the northern base of Tell Redghah is a sLVALite of ruins, and near it a Mussulman tomb, which is called by the Arabs Sheik Salim (see also Memoir, p. 345). Dr. Robinson (Bibl. Researches, 3, 333) complains that the name is attached only to a Mussulman sanctuary, and also that no ruins of any extent are to be found on the spot; but with regard to the first objection, even Dr. Robinson does not dispute that the name is there, and that the locality is in the closest agreement with the notice of Eusebius. As to the second, it is only necessary to point to Kefr-Saba, where a town (Antipatris), which so late as the time of the destruction of Jerusalem was of great size and extensively fortified, has absolutely disappeared. The career of the Baptist has been examined in a former part of this work, and it has been shown with great probability that his progress was from south to north, and that the scene of his last baptisms was not far distant from the spot indicated by Eusebius, and now recovered by Van de Velde. See JOHN; See JORDAN. Salim fulfils also the conditions implied in the name of Aenon (springs), and the direct statement of the text that the place contained abundance of water. "The brook of Wady Chusneh runs close to it, a splendid fountain gushes out beside the Wely, and rivulets wind about in all directions.... Of few places in Palestine could it so truly be said, 'Here is much water'" (Syr. and Pal. 2, 346). Drake, however, avers that "inquiries of the Arabs and fellahin of the district resulted in not a man of them even having heard of either of these places," i.e. Bir Salim and Sheik Salim (Quar. Report of the Pal. Explor. Fund, Jan. 1875, p. 82). See SALEM.\par \par (Below is a second article on the same topic.)\par \par Salim\par Lieut. Conder (Tent Work, 1:92) advocates the position of this place at Salim, four miles east of Nablufs, urging the abundance of water there, and the presence of a village, Ainun (AEnon), seven and a half miles to the north-east; and Tristram (Bible Places, page 192) likewise accepts this situation LVALfor similar reasons, adding that "it is close to one of the old main lines of road from Jerusalem to Galilee." "The head-springs are found in an open valley surrounded by desolate and shapeless hills. The water gushes out over a stony bed, and flows rapidly down in a fine stream surrounded by bushes of oleander. The supply is perennial, and a continual succession of little springs occurs along the bed of the valley, so that the current becomes the principal western affluent of Jordan south of the Vale of Jezreel. The valley is open in most parts of its course, and we find the the wo requisites for the scene of baptism of a multitude \emdash an open space and abundance of water" (Conder). Salim itself is described in the Memoirs accompanying the Ordnance Survey (2:230) as "a small village, resembling the rest, but evidently ancient, having rock-cut tombs, cisterns, and a tank. Olive-trees surround it; on the north are two springs, three quarters of a mile from the village."\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVAL {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SALIMBENI, VENTURA\par \par Salimbeni, Ventura,\par \par called the Cavaliere Bevilacqua, son of Arcangelo, was born at Sienna in 1567. He studied with his father, and at last went to Rome, where he executed many of his best frescos. The number of these is very large, and in the church of St. Catharine at Sienna are some of the finest. At Florence may be seen his Apparition of St. Michael, and in Vienna a Holy Family. He died in 1613.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SALIMBENI, SIMONDIO\par \par Salimbeni, Simondio,\par \par son of the following, was born in 1597, and died in 1643. In one of the churches in Sienna are four frescos by this artist.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVAL{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SALIUS\par \par Salius,\par \par in Greek mythology, was one of the companions of Eneas, who secured a prize, consisting of the skin of a lion, in the races.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SALISBURY, NATHANIEL\par \par Salisbury, Nathaniel,\par \par a Methodist minister, was born in Vermont in 1794, and converted in Scipio, Tompkins County, N.Y., at the age of twenty-five years. He was admitted into the Genesee Conference on trial in 1822, ordained deacon in 1824, and elder in 1826. He was employed on circuits eleven years, on stations seventeen years, and on districts, as presiding elder, fifteen years, and was on the superannuated list eleven years. He was in 1832 a member of the General Conference from the Oneida Conference. He was a man of fine preaching abilities, a safe counsellor, and was greatly beloved by the people. He died in Rome, N.Y., Feb. 18, 1876. See Minutes of Conferences, 1876, p. 63.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVAL {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SALKELD, JOHN\par \par Salkeld, John,\par \par who flourished from 1575 to 1659, was educated partly at Oxford, and, after being for many years a Jesuit in Spain and Portugal, was converted by the eloquence of James I, and by him made vicar of Wellington, Somersetshire. From 1635 to 1645 he was minister of the church at Taunton, Devonshire, from which he was ejected in the civil wars. He published, A Treatise of Angels (Lond. 1613, 8 vo): \emdash Treatise of Paradise, of the Serpent, Cherubim, etc. (1617, 12 mo). See Allibone, Dict. of Authors, s.v.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } 5GcvG [ 4 | U  l A I  A  AS l!\/hj?h?USAMARITAN PENTATEUCH 1nȺh>2SAMARITAN LITURGY~fȺh4(SAMARITAN LITERATURE^`Ⱥh:.SAMARITAN LANGUAGE)]Ⱥh6*SAMARITAN]GȺh$SAMARIA, CITY OF:Ⱥh2&SAMARIA D5Ⱥh SAMANERA@4"SAMANAEANS`@4&SAMAIAS@3 SAMAEL2@3SAMA VEDA@0$SAM-BEID@0"SAM, CONRAD1Ⱥh(SALVINI, SALVINO@02&SALVIATI, GIOVANNI @/6* SALVIATI, FRANCESCO ROSSI DE@.J> SALVIATI, BERNARDO @-6* SALVIATI, ANTONIO MARIA@,@4 SALVIATI, ALAMANNOl@,6* SALVIANUS*Ⱥh$SALVI, NICCOLO@)."SALVI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA@)B6SALVI MUNDI SALUTARE @(:.SALVETE, FLORES MARTYRUM @'B6SALVE, FESTA DIES, TOTO VENERABILIS AEVON @&bVSALVE, CAPUT CRUENTATUM @%@4SALVE REGINA @$*SALVE JESU, SUMME BONUS\@#@4SALVATION ARMYS h."SALVADOR, JOSEPH0 @ 2&SALUTATORIUM@ *SALUTATION, RITUAL @ 6*SALUTATION}h&SALUT@SALUSJ@SALUMN@SALU@SALTZMANN, FRIEDRICH RUDOLFhH<SALTMARSH, JOHN@0$SALTHEN, DANIEL LORENZ@>2SALTER, SAMUEL(@."SALTER, RICHARD @0$SALT, VALLEY OFp/h0$SALT, ECCLESIASTICAL USE OF@H<SALT, CITY OF,h, SALT SEA>h"SALTb9hSALPINXJ@ SALONIUS@"SALOMON, JOHN @, SALOMON, GOTTHOLDh4(SALOME/hSALOM8@SALMONEUSH @$SALMONEnh SALMON, NATHANIEL@4(SALMONX @SALMERON, ALPHONSOfh6*SALMEGGIA, ENEA@0$SALMASIUS, CLAUDIUSh8,SALMANTICANIh*SALMANASAR@&SALMACIS@"SALMAX@SALLUMUSr@"SALLU@SALLE, JOHN BAPTIST DE LA @D8SALLAI@SALKINSON, ISAAC E. @8,SALKELD, JOHN@, LVAL{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SALKINSON, ISAAC E.\par \par Salkinson, Isaac E.\par \par a missionary among the Jews, and an excellent Hebrew scholar, who died June 15, 1883, at Presburg, in the employ of the British Society for Jewish Missions, is the author of a Hebrew translation of Philosophy of the Plan of Salvation (Altona, 1858). Besides translating into Hebrew Milton's Paradise Lost, Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, he published The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Romans, translated from the original Greek (Edinburgh, 1855). At the time of his death lie had finished a Hebrew translation of the New Test., which was edited by Dr. Ch. D. Ginsburg of England, and published at the expense of the English Trinitarian Bible Society at the imperial press of K. Fromme, in Vienna. The translation has been made in "classical Hebrew idiom," but "in seeking for elegance of language, exegetical and historical correctness, which are always closely connected with correctness of language, has been lost." See Theologisches Literaturblatt (Leipsic, 1885, Nos. 45, 46, 47).\par \par B. P. \par \par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } `LVALp{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SALLAI\par \par Sal'lai\par \par (Heb. <START HEBREW>yL^s^\par <END HEBREW>, Sallay', perhaps lifted up, from <START HEBREW>ll^s*\par <END HEBREW>, salal; or basket-maker; Sept. \par <START GREEK>Shlei/, Salai=\par <END GREEK>, v.r. \par <START GREEK>Shli/\par <END GREEK>), the name of two Hebrews.\par \par 1. One of the leaders of the sons of Benjamin, who settled at Jerusalem with 928 tribesmen on the return from captivity (Neh 11:8), B.C. cir. 459. \par \par 2. One of the chiefs of the priests who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Neh 12:20), B.C. cir. 459. He is elsewhere (Neh 12:7) called SALLU (q.v.).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVAL{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SALLE, JOHN BAPTIST DE LA\par \par Salle, John Baptist De La\par \par founder of the order of Christian Brothers, was born at Rheims, France, April 30, 1651. At the age of seventeen he was made canon of the Cathedral of his native city, and after studying some time at the Sulpician Seminary in Paris, he took the degree of doctor of divinity, and was ordained priest in 1678. He died in Rouen, April 9, 1719. The order which he established is devoted to teaching, especially among the poorer classes. He introduced the mutual simultaneous method of instruction, and also composed a treatise on school government. The order was approved by Benedict XIII, and has thousands of schools, and first-class colleges at Passy, near Paris, at Marseilles, Manhattanville, N.Y., St. Louis, Baltimore, etc. Baptist de la Salle was declared venerable by Gregory XVI, May 8, 1840, and beatified by Pius IX in 1873. See (N.Y.) Cath. Almanac, 1873, page 88.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } tLVAL{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SALLUMUS\par \par Sallu'mus\par \par (\par <START GREEK>Sallou=mo$\par <END GREEK> v.r. \par <START GREEK>Salou=mo$\par <END GREEK>), a Graecized form (1 Esd 9:25) of the name SHALLUM See SHALLUM (q.v.) of the Heb. (Ezra 10:24).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SALLU\par \par Sal'lu,\par \par the name of two Hebrews, differently spelled in the original.\par \par 1. (Heb. <START HEBREW>aWLs^\par <END HEBREW>, Sallu' [<START HEBREW>aL%s^\par <END HEBREW> in Neh 11:7], weighed; Sept. \par <START GREEK>Salw/\par <END GREEK>, v.r. \par <START GREEK>Shlw/, Salw/m\par <END GREEK>.) A Benjaminite, son of Meshullam, dwelling in Jerusalem after the return from exile (Neh 11:7; 1 Chron 9:7), B.C. cir. 459. \par \par 2. (Heb. <START HEBREW>WLs^\par <END HEBREW>, Sallu', weighed; Sept. \par <START GREEK>Salou/\par <END GREEK> v.r. \par <START GREEK>Sallouai=\par <END GREEK>.) Another name (Neh 12:7) for SALLAI (Neh 12:20), No. 2 (q.v.).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVAL{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SALMACIS\par \par Salmacis,\par \par in Greek mythology, was the nymph of a fountain of the same name in Caria. She loved Hermaphroditus, the son of Mercury and Venus, who was possessed of extraordinary beauty; but he avoided her and despised her prayers. She therefore seized him in her embraces at a time when he was bathing in her fountain, and besought the gods to join her inseparably with him in case he should not listen to her plea. The prayer was heard, and Hermaphroditus, previously a man, thereafter united both the sexes in his person.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SALMA\par \par Sal'ma\par \par (Heb. <START HEBREW>am*l=c^\par <END HEBREW>, Salma', a garment; Sept. \par <START GREEK>Salma/n, Salwmw/n\par <END GREEK>, v.r. \par <START GREEK>Salmw/n\par <END GREEK>), the name of two men.\par \par 1. An ancestor of David and Christ (1 Chron 2:11); elsewhere SALMON (q.v.).\par \par 2. The second-named of three sons of Caleb the son of Hur, called the "father" (i.e. founder) of Bethlehem and of the Netophathites (1 Chron 2:51,54), B.C. ante 1500. Lord Hervey (Genealogy of Our Lord, ch. 4, 9) confounds this person with the preceding (see Keil, ad loc.).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVAL {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SALMEGGIA, ENEA\par \par Salmeggia, Enea,\par \par an Italian painter, was born at Bergamo. He was a pupil of Campi at Cremona, afterwards went to Rome, and for fourteen years gave himself to the study of the works of Raffaelle. His works show the effect of this study. Many of his pictures are at Bergamo, but the best may be seen in Milan, as St. Victor, Christ in the Garden, and others. He died in 1626.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SALMANASAR\par \par Salmana'sar\par \par (Vulg. Salmanasar, for the Gr. text is lost), a less correct form (2 Esd 13:40) of the name of the Assyrian king SHALMANESER See SHALMANESER (q.v.).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SALMANTICANI\par Salmanticani\par (sc. theologi), a collection of theological "Summae" emanating from the college of Discalceate Carmelites at Salamanca, and highly esteemed in the Roman Catholic Church. The work, inl arrangement and execution, is wholly in the style of Thomas Aquinas, and its teaching is emphatic in defending the views of the Angelical Doctor to the utmost, particularly with reference to the doctrine of grace. Its authors directed their argument especially against the system of Molina, See MOLINA, LUIS, which was then a subject of controversy. In this course they were supported by the whole weight of the University of Salamanca, which not only clung to the Thomist doctrines in their utmost strictness, but whose faculty bound itself with a unanimous oath to present only the doctrines of Augustine and Aquinas in their public lectures. A work containing the philosophical system of Aquinas had previously been issued by the Barefooted Carmelites of the College of Alcala, under the title Complutensis Artium Cursus, which served as a preliminary to the Salmantican theology. The authors of the above works are not definitely known, though Antonius, in Bibl. Hispan., mentions a Carmelite father Antonius as the principal author of both a statement which is disproved by the preface to the Theology. The first volume of the Salmantican theologians appeared in 1631, and nine volumes are now known to exist (Pfaff, Introd. in Hist. Theol. Literar. p. 203, mentions ten), the last of which contains the tract De Incarnatione. \par A smaller work on moral theology, Cursus Theol. Moralis (Venet. 1728, complete in 6 vols.), was published by the same order and school, whose authors were, without exception, Probabilists. See PROBABILISM. Their names are given in the book. The work has been highly commended LVAL  by Roman Catholic theologians in the department of morals, e.g. by Gury.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SALMASIUS, CLAUDIUS\par Salmasius, Claudius\par (Claude de Saumaise), one of the greatest French scholars of the 17 th century, was born at Semur-en-Auxois, in Burgundy, April 15, 1588. His father, a jurist, gave him the first elements of his classic knowledge; his mother, a Calvinist, impressed upon him her practical religion. At the age of ten he wrote Latin and Greek. At sixteen he went to the University of Paris, and was greatly stimulated by intercourse with those great classic scholars, Joseph Scaliger and Isaac Casaubon. To his Greek and Latin he now added Hebrew, Arabic, and Coptic, which he learned without a teacher. In 1606 he resorted to the University of Heidelberg to study jurisprudence under Gothofredus, but he found the most attraction in the rich library, and especially in its rare manuscripts. He now gave up jurisprudence as a specialty, and devoted himself to universal erudition. At the age of twenty-one he brought out his richly annotated edition of Florus, a work which gave him a name among the scholars of the age. In 1611 he printed at Paris his Scriptores Historioe Augustoe. In 1623 he married, and lived for some years near Paris, working upon his essays on Pliny I and Solinus. They appeared in Paris in 1629 in two folio volumes, under the title Plinianioe Dissertationes in Caii Julii Solini Polyhistora, and obtained for their author wide fame and calls to many foreign universities. In 1632 he accepted an honorary professorship at Leyden, with a comfortable pension, devoting himself to erudite labor, and declining many tempting invitations to return to France. Even the offer by Riclelieu of six times as great a salary if he would come to Paris and become the great statesman's biographer was respectfully declined, with the remark that he could not consent to devote his pen to theLVAL work of flattery. His work on the primacy of the pope (1645) involved him in trouble with the Roman clergy; but the consequences of his Defensio Regia pro Carolo Psrimo (Leyden, 1649), which he had written at the request of the banished king Charles It, were much more serious, for it not only called forth the able and passionate rejoinder of Milton, Defensio pro Populo Anglicano (1650), but it brought upon its author the disapproval of his republican patrons in Holland. Wounded at this, Salmasius hastily accepted an invitation of Christina of Sweden to enter her service; but, his expectations not being met, he returned to Holland in 1651. But his health was now completely broken. Salmasius became a Protestant at Heidelberg while still a youth, and held fast to his faith at no little self-sacrifice throughout life. He died at Spa Sept. 6, 1653, and was buried at Maestricht. Among his writings which bear upon religion, we may mention De Episcopis et Presbyteris: \emdash De Coesarie Virorum et Muliesrum Coma: \emdash Super Herodis Infanticida: \emdash De Transubstantione: \emdash De Cruce et Hyssopo. See Papillon, Bibliotheque des Auteurs de Bourgogne; Paquot, Memoires; Herzog, Real-Encyklop. 13, 328-331.\par J. P. L. \par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SALMERON, ALPHONSO\par Salmeron, Alphonso,\par one of the original six who associated themselves with Loyola in founding the Society of Jesus. He was born at Toledo in 1515. Having learned the ancient languages at Alcala. he repaired to the University of Paris to study philosophy and theology. There he became attached to Loyola, and was soon one of his most zealous and efficient disciples. Subsequently he visited Italy, and promoted the cause of the new order by enthusiastic public labors of every kind. His talent for controversy was of a high order. The pope rewarded his zeal by conferring on him the title of Apostolic Nuncio of Ireland. He was charged by the popes Paul III, Julius IlI, and Pins IV with the function of papal theologian and orator at the Council of Trent. In cooperation with Lainez, he prepared a statement of the so called erroneous teachings of the Reformers, accompanying each one with citations from the fathers, popes, and councils which refuted and condemned them. After the Council of Trent he returned to Italy, and retired into the college which he had founded at Naples. There, as president of the provincial section of his order in Naples, he closed his days, in 1585, combating all forms of heresy, and preparing his extensive commentary on the Bible. His works were published, in sixteen volumes folio, at Madrid, Mantua, Brixen, and Cologne (1597-1612). Some of the titles of the separate volumes are, Prolegomenon in Universam Scripturama: \emdash De Incarnatione Verbi: \emdash De Sermone Domini in Monte: \emdash De Christi Miraculis: \emdash De Passione et Morte Domini: \emdash De Resurrectione et Ascensione Domini. See Herzog, Real-Encyklop. 13, 331.\par J. P. L. \par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by BinLVAL~blesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVAL{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SALMON\par \par Sal'mon,\par \par the name of a man and of a hill.\par \par 1. (Heb. Salmon', <START HEBREW>/oml=c^\par <END HEBREW>, clothing, Ruth 4:21, Sept. \par <START GREEK>Salmw/n\par <END GREEK> v.r. \par <START GREEK>Salma/n\par <END GREEK>; but Salima', <START HEBREW>am*l=c^\par <END HEBREW>, id. 1 Chron 2:11, Sept. \par <START GREEK>Salma/n\par <END GREEK> v.r. \par <START GREEK>Salwmw/n\par <END GREEK>, A.V. "Salma;" and Salmah', <START HEBREW>hm*l=c^\par <END HEBREW>, id. Ruth 4:20, Sept. \par <START GREEK>Salmw/n\par <END GREEK> v.r. \par <START GREEK>Salma/n\par <END GREEK>, A.V. "Salmon;" N.T. \par <START GREEK>Salmw/n\par <END GREEK>). The son of Nahshon and the ancestor of Boaz, of the family of Judah and David (Ruth 4:20,21; 1 Chron 2:11; Matt 1:4,5; Luke 3:32). B.C. cir. 1660. See GENEALOGY OF JESUS CHRIST.\par \par 2. (Heb. Tsalmon, (<START HEBREW>/oml=x^\par <END HEBREW>, shady.) A place named (Ps 68:14) as a battlefield, apparently during the Israelites' conquest of Canaan; probably the Mount ZALMON See ZALMONAH (q.v.) elsewhere (Judg 9:48) referred to.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } 0 LVAL@ {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SALMON, NATHANIEL\par \par Salmon, Nathaniel,\par \par an English clergyman and physician, son of the Rev. Thomas Salmon, was educated at Cambridge. He entered holy orders, but after a while abandoned the clerical profession for that of medicine, in the practice of which, and in the study of antiquities, he passed the remainder of his life. He died April 2, 1742. His principal works were, Lives of the English Bishops (Lond. 1733, 8 vo): \emdash History of Hertfordshire (ibid. 1728); and others on history and antiquities.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SALMONE\par Salmo'ne\par \par (<START GREEK>\par Salmw/nh<END GREEK>\par , of unknown etymology), a promontory in Crete, apparently forming the northeast point of the island, mentioned thus in the narrative of Paul's voyage and shipwreck: "When we had scarce come over against Cnidus, the wind not suffering us, we sailed under Crete, over against Salmone" (Acts 27:7). Capt. Smith (of Jordanhill) has shown the naturalness and accuracy of this notice in his own peculiar way. The direct course of the ship, he states, from Myra to Italy, after reaching Cnidus, lay by the north side of Crete; but the wind at the time did not suffer that, blowing, as he shows, from a point somewhat to the west of northwest \emdash a wind very prevalent. in the Archipelago in late summer. Then he says, "With northwest winds the ship could work up from Myra to Cnidus; because, until she reached that point, she had the advantage of a weather shore, under the lee of which she would have smooth water and a westerly current; but it would be slowly and with difficulty. At Cnidus that advantage ceased; and unless she had put into that harbor and waited for a fair wind, ler only course was to run under the lee of Crete, <START GREEK>\par kata\\ Salmw/nhn<END GREEK>\par , in the direction of Salmone, which is the eastern extremity of that island" (Paul's Voyage and Shipwreck, ch. 2). They passed the point, the evangelist says, with some difficulty; and the same modern writer mentions the case of a squadron (a portion of the British fleet from Abukir) which tried to take the same course, but had the wind too westerly to admit of their doing so (see Lewin, St. Paul, 2, 191). See SHIPWRECK (of St. Paul).\par The classical name for the headland is Salmonium, Sammoninum, or Samonium (<START GREEK>\par Salmw/nion, Sammw/nion, Samw/f LVALv nion<END GREEK>\par , Ptolem. 3, 15, \'a7 5; Strabo, 2, 106; 10:474, 475, 478, 489; comp. Pomp. Mela, 2, 7, \'a7 12; Pliny, 4, 20, \'a7 21). The name Point Salomon is now usually applied to the end of Cape Sidero, the easternmost extreme of Crete (Hock, Creta, 1, 427); but Spratt (Researches in Crete [Lond. 1865]) thinks it is rather a southern extension of that headland called Cape Plaka. See CRETE.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } nLVAL{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SALOM\par \par Sa'lom\par \par (\par <START GREEK>Salw/m\par <END GREEK>), a Greek form in the Apocrypha,\par \par (a)\tab incorrectly (1 Macc 1:2,26), for SALU See SALU (q.v.), the father of Zimri (Num 25:14);\par \par (b)\tab less correctly (Bar 1:1,7), for SHALLUM See SHALLUM (q.v.), the father of Hilkiah (1 Chron 6:13).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SALMONEUS\par \par Salmoneus,\par \par in Greek mythology, was a son of Aeolus and Enarete, and brother of Sisyphus. He was king in Elis (where he built Salmone), and husband, first of Alcidice, the mother of Tyro, and afterwards of Sidero. Such was his vanity that he demanded to be recognized and worshipped as Jupiter, and that, to deceive the populace, he attempted to imitate the lightnings of Jove by causing flaming torches to be thrown about him, and the thunders of the god by driving over sounding bridges of brass with heavy war chariots. or by dragging vessels filled with air behind his chariot. He was even charged with having murdered people, that he might pretend that they had fallen beneath his thunderbolts. Jupiter at length became wearied of his madness, and smote him with his bolt, besides destroying the entire city of Salmone.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SALOME\par Salo'me\par (<START GREEK>\par Salw/mh<END GREEK>\par , from the Heb. <START HEBREW><olv*<END HEBREW>\par , i.e. peaceful), the name of several women mentioned or alluded to in the N.T. and by Josephus.\par 1. Called also Alexandra, the wife of Aristobulus I, king of the Jews, on whose death ( B.C. 106) she released her brothers, who had been thrown by him into prison, and advanced the eldest of them (Alexander Jannaeus) to the throne (Josephus, Ant. 13:12, 1; War, 1, 4, 1). By some she has been identified with Alexandra, the wife of Alexander Jannseus. See ALEXANDRA.\par 2. A daughter of Antipater by his wife Cypros, and sister of Herod the Great, one of the most wicked of women. She first married Joseph, whom she accused of familiarities with Mariamne, wife of Herod, and thus procured his death ( B.C. 34). She afterwards married Costobarus; but, being disgusted with him, she put him away \emdash a license till then unheard of among the Jews, whose law (says Josephus) allows men to put away their wives, but does not allow women equal liberty ( B.C. 26). After this she accused him of treason against Herod, who put him to death. She caused much division and trouble in Herod's family by her calumnies and mischievous informations; and she may be considered as the chief author of the death of the princes Alexander and Aristobulus, and of their mother Mariamne. See ARISTOBULUS. She afterwards conceived a violent passion for an Arabian prince, called Sillaeus, whom she would have married against her brother Herod's consent; and even after she was married to Alexas, her inclination for Sillaeus was notorious. Salome survived Herod, who left her, by will, the cities of Jamnia, Azoth, and Phasaelis, with fifty thousand pieces of money. She favored Antipas against Archelaus, and died A.D. 9, LVALa little after Archelaus had been banished to Vienne, in Dauphiny. Salome had five children by Alexas \emdash Berenice, Antipater, Calleas, and a son and a daughter whose names are not mentioned (Josephus, Ant. 15:4; 17:8) See HEROD.\par 3. A daughter of Herod the Great by Elpis. In addition to what her father bequeathed to her, Augustus gave her a considerable dowry, and married her to one of the sons of Pheroras, Herod's brother (Josephus, A nf. 17:1; War, 1, 28, etc.). See HEROD.\par 4. The wife of Zebedee, as appears from comparing Matt 27:56 with Mark 15:40. It is further the opinion of many modern critics that she was that sister of Mary, the mother of Jesus, to whom reference is made in John 19:25. The words admit, however, of another and hitherto generally received explanation, according to which they refer to the "Mary the wife of Cleophas" immediately afterwards mentioned. In behalf of the former view, it may be urged that it gets rid of the difficulty arising out of two sisters having the same name; that it harmonizes John's narrative with those of Matthew and Mark; that this circuitous manner of describing his own mother is in character with John's manner of describing himself; that the absence of any connecting link between the second and third designations may be accounted for on the ground that the four are arranged in two distinct couplets; and, lastly, that the Peshito, the Persian, and the Aethiopic versions mark the distinction between the second and third by interpolating a conjunction. On the other hand, it may be urged that the difficulty arising out of the name may be disposed of by assumig a double marriage on the part of the father; that there is no necessity to harmonize John with Matthew and Mark, for that the time and the place in which the groups are noticed differ materially; that the language addressed to John \emdash "Behold thy mother!" \emdash favors the idea of the absence rather than of the presence of his natural mother; and that the varying traditions currentLVAL in the early Church as to Salome's parents, worthless as they are in themselves, yet bear a negative testimony against the idea of her being related to the mother of Jesus. (According to one account, she was the daughter of Joseph by a former marriage [Epiphan. Hoer. 78, 8]; according to another, the wife of Joseph [Niceph. H.E. 2, 3].) Altogether, we can hardly regard the point as settled, though the weight of modern criticism is decidedly in favor of the former view (see Wieseler, in the Stud. u. Kit. [1840] p. 648). The only events recorded of Salome are that she preferred a request, on behalf of her two sons, for seats of honor in the kingdom, of heaven (Matt 20:20); that she attended at the crucifixion of Jesus (Mark 15:40); and that she visited his sepulchre (Mark 16:1) ( A.D. 26-28). She is mentioned by name only on the two latter occasions. See ZEBEDEE.\par 5. The daughter of Herodias by her first husband, Herod Philip (Josephus, Ant. 18:5, 4). She is the "daughter of Herodias" noticed in Matt 14:6 as dancing before Herod Antipas, and as procuring, at her mother's instigation, the death of John the Baptist. See HERODIAS. She was married, in the first place, to Philip, the tetrarch of Trachonitis, her paternal uncle, who died childless; and, secondly, to her cousin Aristobulus, son of Herod, the king of Chalcis, by whom she had three sons. The legendary account of her death (Niceph. H.E. 1, 20) is a clumsy invention to the effect that Salome accompanied her mother Herodias, and her father-in-law Herod, in their banishment to Vienne, in Dauphiny; and that, the emperor having obliged them to go into Spain, as she passed over a river that was frozen, the ice broke under her feet, and she sank in up to her neck, when, the ice uniting again, she remained thus suspended by it, and suffered the same punishment she had made John the Baptist undergo. See HEROD.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reservLVALed.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SALOMON, GOTTHOLD\par Salomon, Gotthold,\par a German rabbi, was born at Sandersleben, in the duchy of Anhalt-Dessau, Nov. 1, 1784. Up to his sixteenth year he was educated in Talmudic lore and literature, according to the custom of that time. After this he acquired the rudiments of the German language, especially through the efforts of the chaplain Bobbe, who not only allowed him to come to his school, but also gave him private lessons. He then went to Dessau, to attend the lectures at the Jewish college, employing, however, all his spare time in acquainting himself with German literature. In 1802 he became tutor of German and Hebrew at the Franz school, and afterwards he was intrusted with the religious instruction. In 1806 he delivered his maiden speech, which was very highly spoken of by Christians who heard him. Salomon never lost sight of his intention to become a preacher; and in this he was encouraged by his Christian friends, who not only supplied him with the sermons of Zollikofer and Reinhardt, but even corrected his compositions in accordance with the rules of homiletics. In 1815 he went to Berlin, where he delivered his first discourse in Jacobsohn's Temple. He now became known to his coreligionists; and when, in 1818, the Temple of the Reformed party at Hamburg was dedicated, Salomon was elected assistant preacher. In the year 1844 he dedicated the "New Temple," and attended the assemblies of the rabbins at Brunswick, Frankfort, and Breslau. In the year 1857 he retired from his duties, and died Nov. 17, 1862. Of his numerous publications we mention: Auswahl von Predigten (Dessau. 1818): \emdash Predigten (Hamburg, 1819-29): \emdash Moses, in 21 sermons (ibid. 1835): \emdash David, as Man, Israelite, and King, 26 sermons (ibid. 1837): \emdash Elias, the Champion of Light and Truth, iLVALn 19 sermons (ibid. 1840): \emdash Der Berg des Herrnn, 17 sermons on the Decalogue (ibid. 1846): \emdash <START HEBREW><yroab<END HEBREW>\par , comments upon Haggai and Zechariah (Dessau, 1805): \emdash The Pentateuch, according to the Masoretic text, with a German translation and short glosses (Krotoschin, 1848-49, 5 vols.). Some of his sermons were also translated into English by Miss A.M. Goldsmid (London, 1839). See Furst, Bibl. Jud. 3, 226 sq.; Kayserling, Bibliothek judischer Kanzelredner, 1, 142-277; Jost, Gesch. d. Judenth. u. s. Secten, 3, 365, 371; Gratz, Gesch. d. Juden, 11, 416 sq.; Ph. Philippson, Biographische Skizzen (Leips. 1866, 3 pts.); Geiger, in the Zeitschrift fur judische Theologie, 2, 127 sq.; 3, 91-102; Unsere Zeit, 7, 396; Steinschneider, Hebr. Bibliographie, 6, 17; L. Philippson, Predigt- und Schul-Magazin, 2, 253-269.\par B. P. \par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVAL{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SALOMON, JOHN\par \par Salomon, John,\par \par professor of Hebrew, was a native of Posen, where he was born in 1623. He embraced Christianity at Dantzic, Jan. 22, 1657. Two years later he was appointed professor of the Oriental languages at the gymnasium there, and died July 1, 1683. He wrote Demonstrationes XXXVIII contra Judoeos (Frankfort, 1660): \emdash Programma Hebr. ad A udiendam Orationem Hebr. de Proestantia et Utilitate Lingua Hebr. (Dantzic, 1666): \emdash Programma de Jubiloeis Hebroeorum (ibid. 1658, etc.). See Furst, Bibl. Judaica, 2, 97; 3, 229; Steinschneider, Bibliograph. Handbuch, p. 123; id. Catalogus Librorum Hebr. in Bibl. Bodl. p. 2397; Wolf, Bibl. Hebri, 480; Delitzsch, Wissenschaft, Kunst und Judenthum, p. 139, 301; Basnage, Histoire des Juifs (Taylor's transl.), p. 735.\par \par \par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVAL>{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SALPINX\par \par Salpinx\par \par (a trumpet), in Greek mythology, was a surname of Minerva. Hegeleos, the son of Tyraenus, dedicated to her a temple with the above name after his father had invented the trumpet.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SALONIUS\par \par Salonius, St.,\par \par bishop of Geneva in the middle of the 5 th century, was the son of Eucher, afterwards bishop of Lyons. At the early age of ten, he entered the monastery of Lerins, and there studied under Hilary, Honorat, and Vincent. It is not positively known whether Salonius had charge of the church at Vienna or Geneva, but it was probably the latter. He is supposed to have assisted, with his father, at the Council of Orange in 441. He died about 470. There remains a writing of Salonius, called Expositio Mystica in Parabolas Salomonis et Ecclesiasten. The style is simple, and the most of the exposition relates to ethics.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SALT\par Salt\par (<START HEBREW>jl^m#<END HEBREW>\par , melach; <START GREEK>\par a%l$<END GREEK>\par ), the chloride of sodium of modern chemistry. Indispensable as salt is to ourselves, it was even more so to the Hebrews, being to them not only an appetizing condiment in the food both of man (Job 6:6) and beast (Isa 30:24; see margin), and a most valuable antidote to the effects of the heat of the climate on animal food, but also entering largely into their religious services as an accompaniment to the various offerings presented on the altar (Lev 2:13). They possessed an inexhaustible and ready supply of it on the southern shores of the Dead Sea. In the same manner the Arabs of the present day procure their supply of salt from the deposits of the Dead Sea, and carry on a considerable trade in that article throughout Syria. Here may have been situated the Valley of Salt (2 Sam 8:13), in proximity to the mountain of fossil salt which Robinson (Researches, 2, 108) describes as five miles in length, and as the chief source of the salt in the sea itself. See SALT, VALLEY OF. Here were the salt pits (Zeph 2:9), probably formed in the marshes at the southern end of the lake, which are completely coated with salt, deposited periodically by the rising of the waters; and here also were the successive pillars of salt which tradition has from time to time identified with Lot's wife (Wisdom 10:7; Josephus, Ant. 1, 11, 4). See DEAD SEA. Salt might also be procured from the Mediterranean Sea, and from this source the Phoenicians would naturally obtain the supply necessary for salting fish (Neh 13:16) and for other purposes. The Jews appear to have distinguished between rock-salt and that which was gained by evaporation, as the Talmudists particularize one species (probably the latter) as the "salt of Sodom" LVAL(Carpzov, Appar. p. 718). The notion that this expression means bitumen rests on no foundation. The salt pits formed an important source of revenue to the rulers of the country (Josephus, Ant. 13:4, 9), and Antiochus conferred a valuable boon on Jerusalem by presenting the city with 375 bushels of salt for the Temple service (ibid. 12:3, 3). In addition to the uses of salt already specified, the inferior sorts were applied as a manure to the soil, or to hasten the decomposition of dung (Matt 5:13; Luke 14:35). Too large an admixture, however, was held to produce sterility, as exemplified on the shores of the Dead Sea (Deut 29:23; Zeph 2:9); hence a "salt" land was synonymous with barrenness (Job 39:6; see margin; Jer 17:6; comp. Josephus, War, 4:8, 2, <START GREEK>\par a(lmurwoh$ kai\\ a%gono$<END GREEK>\par ); and hence also arose the custom of sowing with salt the foundations of a destroyed city (Judg 9:45), as a token of its irretrievable ruin. It was the belief of the Jews that salt would, by exposure to the air, lose its virtue (<START GREEK>\par mwranqh=|<END GREEK>\par , Matt 5:13), and become saltless (<START GREEK>\par a&nalon<END GREEK>\par , Mark 9:50). The same fact is implied in the expressions of Pliny, sal iners (31, 39), sal tabescere (31, 44); and Maundrell (Early Travels [ed. Bohn], p. 512) asserts that he found the surface of a salt rock in this condition (see Hackett, Illustrat. of Script. p. 48 sq.).\par The associations connected with salt in Eastern countries are important. As one of the most essential articles of diet, it symbolized hospitality; as an antiseptic, durability, fidelity, and purity. Hence the expression, "covenant of salt" (Lev 2:13; Num 18:19; 2 Chron 13:5), as betokening an indissoluble alliance between friends (see Gettysb. Evang. Rev. Oct. 1867); and again the expression, "salted with the salt of the palace" (Ezra 4:14), not necessarily meaning that they had "maintenance from the palace," as the A.V. has it, but that they were bound by sacred obligationLVALs of fidelity to the king. So in the present day, "to eat bread and salt together" is an expression for a league of mutual amity (Russell, Aleppo, 1, 232); and, on the other hand, the Persian term for traitor is nemekharam, "faithless to salt" (Gesenius, Thesaur. p. 790). The same force would be given by the preservative quality of salt (Bahrdt, De Federe Salis [Lips. 1761]; Hallervordt, id. [ibid. 1701]; Zeibich, id. [Ger. 1760]; Thomson, Land and Book, 2, 42 sq.). See COVENANT. It was possibly with a view to keep this idea prominently before the minds of the Jews that the use of salt was enjoined on the Israelites in their offerings to God; for in the first instance it was specifically ordered for the meat offering (Lev 2:13), which consisted mainly of flour, and therefore was not liable to corruption (see Pontanus, De Sale Sacrific. [Traj. 1703]; Spencer, De Legis Rit. 1, 5, 1). The extension of its use to burned-sacrifices was a later addition (Ezra 43, 24; Josephus, Ant. 3, 9, 1), in the spirit of the general injunction at the close of Lev 2:13. Similarly the heathens accompanied their sacrifices with salted barley meal, the Greeks with their <START GREEK>\par ou)loxu/tai<END GREEK>\par (Homer, Il. 1, 449), the Romans with their mola salsa (Horace, Sat. 2, 3, 200) or their salsoe fruges (Virgil, Aen. 2, 133). Salt, therefore, became of great importance to Hebrew worshippers: it was sold accordingly in the Temple market, and a large quantity was kept in the Temple itself, in a chamber appropriated to the purpose (Maii Diss. de Usu Salis Symbol. in Rebus Sacris [Giess. 1692]; Wokenius, De Salitura Oblationum Deo Factar. [Lips. 1747]; Josephus, Ant. 12:3, 3; Middoth, 5, 3; Othon. Lex. Rabb. p. 668). It may, of course, be assumed that in all of these cases salt was added as a condiment; but the strictness with which the rule was adhered to \emdash no sacrifice being offered without salt (Pliny, 31, 41), and still more the probable, though perhaps doubtful, admixture of it in incense (Ex 30:35, whBLVALRere the word rendered "tempered together" is by some understood as "salted" \emdash leads to the conclusion that there was a symbolical force attached to its use (Josephus, Ant. 3, 9, 1; Philo, 2, 255; Hottinger, Jur. Heb. Legg. p. 168); as was certainly the case with the Greeks and Romans (Pliny, Hist. Nat. 31, 44; Ovid, Fast. 1, 337; Spencer, De Leg. Rit. 3, 2, 2; Lukemacher, Antiq. Groec. Sacr. p. 350; Hottinger, De Usu Salis. etc. [Marburg, 1708]; Schickedanz, id. [Servest. 1758]; Maius, id. [Giess. 1692]; Mill, id. (Ult. 1734]). Our Lord refers to the sacrificial use of salt in Mark 9:49,50, though some of the other associations may also be implied. The purifying property of salt, as opposed to corruption, led to its selection as the outward sign in Elisha's miracle (2 Kings 2:20,21), and is also developed in the New Test. (Matt 5:13; Col 4:6). The custom of rubbing infants with salt (Ezra 16:4) originated in sanitary considerations, but received also a symbolical meaning (Richter, De Usu Salis apud Priscos Profano et Sacro [Zittas, 1766]).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\ansicpg1252\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SALT SEA\par Salt Sea,\par \par usually known as "the Dead Sea." This is the largest lake in Palestine, and in many respects the most remarkable in the world. Well known as it has always been, its peculiarities have scarcely yet been adequately explored.\par I. Names. \emdash This body of water has received a variety of designations from writers both ancient and modern; and, as they are characteristic, they demand a brief examination here.\par 1. "The Salt Sea" is the most common Scripture appellation (<START HEBREW>hl^M#h^ <y*<END HEBREW>\par , Yam ham-Melach; Sept. <START GREEK>\par h( qa/lassa tw=n a(lw=n<END GREEK>\par , or <START GREEK>\par a(lo/$<END GREEK>\par ; also <START GREEK>\par h( qa/lassa h( a(lukh/$<END GREEK>\par ; Vulg. Mare Salis). It is evidently a descriptive name, probably intended to indicate both the saltness of its water and the character of the plain and hills along its southern margin (Reland, Paloest. p. 240). It occurs in the earliest books of the Bible, but is not found later than the time of Joshua (Gen 14:3; Num 34:3; Deut 3:17; Josh 3:16; 15:2,5; 18:19). In the Talmudical books it is likewise called "the Sea of Salt" (<START HEBREW>ajlmd amy<END HEBREW>\par ). See quotations from the Talmud and, the Midrash Tehillim by Reland (Paloest. p. 237).\par 2. "The Sea of the Plain," or, more properly, of the Arabah (<START HEBREW>hb*r*u&h* <y*<END HEBREW>\par , Yam ha-Arabah; Sept. [<START GREEK>\par h(<END GREEK>\par ]<START GREEK>\par qa/lassa<END GREEK>\par [<START GREEK>\par th=$<END GREEK>\par ] <START GREEK>\par \~&Araba<END GREEK>\par ; Vulg. Mare solitudinis), is also a descriptive title, showing its geographical position in the center of the great valley of the Arabah. It is first employed in combination with the preceding, as if MoLVALses had heard it on his approach to Palestine (Deut 3:17); and possibly it may have afterwards supplanted the older name (4:49; 2 Kings 14:25), with which it is sometimes associated (Josh 3:16; 12:3; Deut 3:17). See ARABAH.\par 3. "The East Sea" is the only other name employed in Scripture (<START HEBREW>yn!omd=Q^h^ <y*h^<END HEBREW>\par , ha-Yam hak-Kadmoni; Sept. <START GREEK>\par h(q a/lassa h( pro\\$ a)natola/$<END GREEK>\par ; Vulg. Mare Orientale). It is used by Ezekiel (Ezek 47:18), Joel (Joel 2:20), and Zechariah (Zech 14:8, where the A.V. has "the former sea," although the Hebrew is the same), to distinguish it from the Mediterranean, which was called "the western" (<START HEBREW>/wrjah<END HEBREW>\par , literally "latter," though when opposed to <START HEBREW>/wmdq<END HEBREW>\par it means "western").\par In one passage (Ezek 47:8) it is styled, without previous reference, "the Sea" (<START HEBREW><y*h^<END HEBREW>\par , ha-Yanm, ), and distinguished from "the great sea" \emdash the Mediterranean \emdash (ver. 10).\par 4. The Sea of Sodom (<START HEBREW><wds l? amy<END HEBREW>\par ) is found in the Talmud (Reland, p. 237, 243), no doubt because common tradition represented the city of Sodom as having been engulfed by it. Its connection with Sodom is first suggested in the Bible in the book of 2 Esdras (5:7) by the name "Sodomitish sea" (mare Sodomiticum).\par 5. Josephus, and before him Diodorus Siculus (2, 48; 19, 98), names it the Asphaltic Lake \emdash <START GREEK>\par h( )Asfalti/ti$ li/mnh<END GREEK>\par (Ant. 1:9; 4:5, 1; 9:10, 1; War, 1, 33, 5; 3:10, 7; 4:8, 2, 4), and once <START GREEK>\par l. h( a)sfaltofo/ro$<END GREEK>\par (Ant. 17:6, 5). Also (ibid. 5, 1, 22) <START GREEK>\par h( Sodomi/ti$ li/mnh<END GREEK>\par . This name was adopted by Galen and other ancient writers, apparently because bitumen or asphaltum was often found floating on its surface or lying along its shores (Reland, p. 241).\par 6. The name Dead Sea appears to have been first used in GreLVALek (<START GREEK>\par qa/lassa nekra/<END GREEK>\par ) by Pausanias (5, 7) and Galen (4, 9), and in Latin (mare mortuum) by Justin (36, 3, 6), or, rather, by the older historian, Trogus Pompeiius (B.C. cir. 10), whose work he epitomized. It is employed also by Eusebius (Onomast. s.v. <START GREEK>\par So/doma<END GREEK>\par ). The expressions of Pausanias and Galen imply that the name was in use in the country; and this is corroborated by the expression of Jerome (Comm. on Dan 11:45), "Mare . . . quod nunc appellatur mortuum." The origin of this name is given by Jerome (ad Ezek 47), "In quo nihil poterat esse vitale;" and in this respect modern research has to a large extent confirmed ancient tradition, proving that the name is appropriate. The Jewish writers appear never to have used it, but it has become established in modern literature from the belief in the very exaggerated stories of its deadly character and gloomy aspect, which themselves probably arose out of the name, and were due to the preconceived notions of the travelers who visited its shores, or to the implicit faith with which they received the statements of their guides. Thus Maundeville (ch. 9) says it is called the Dead Sea because it moveth not, but is ever still \emdash the fact being that it is frequently agitated, and that when in motion its waves have great force. Hence also the fable that no birds could fly across it and live, a notion which the experience of almost every modern traveler to Palestine would contradict.\par 7. The Arabic name is Bahr Lut, "the Sea of Lot." The name of Lot is also specially connected with a small piece of land, sometimes island, sometimes peninsula, at the north end of the lake. Another frequent designation among the modern inhabitants is El-Baheiret el-Myetah, "Dead Sea," suggested by its character.\par II. Physical Features. \emdash \par 1. General Position. \emdash The Dead Sea is situated in the lowest part of that great valley which stretches in a direct line due south from the baseLVAL of Hermon to the head of the gulf of Akabah. The valley is a chasm or fissure in the earth's crust, being for nearly 200 miles below the level of the ocean. The Dead Sea is the reservoir into which all its waters flow, and from which there is, and can be, no escape except by evaporation. It is the lowest and largest of the three lakes which interrupt the rush of the Jordan's downward course. It is, in fact, a pool left by the ocean in its retreat from what there is reason to believe was at a very remote period a channel connecting the Mediterranean with the Red Sea. As the most enduring result of the great geological operation which determined the present form of the country, it may be called, without exaggeration, the key to the physical geography of the Holy Land. It is therefore in every way an object of extreme interest.\par The valley is shut in on the east and west by parallel ranges of mountains, having steep, rugged, and bare sides, furrowed by wild ravines. The eastern range is somewhat higher than the western. In the parallel of Jericho the ranges expand slightly, and the valley there attains its greatest breadth \emdash about twelve miles; but they contract again at the northern end of the Dead Sea, and continue in parallel lines throughout its entire length. The cliffs which hem in the valley are here steeper, higher, and wilder than elsewhere, and the scenery is more bleak and desolate. The sea occupies the whole width of the valley, in many places washing the sides of the cliffs.\par 2. Terrace Banks. \emdash It is deserving of special note that the mountainsides and low plains on both the eastern and western shores of the Dead Sea are marked by a series of terraces, manifestly waterlines of some remote ages. The highest is very distinctly seen on the mountain chain of Moab, extending along the tops of the cliffs like a huge shelf. Its elevation appears to be about 1300 feet; and on the western range, at various places, there is a corresponding terrace. This terrace has been frequenLVALtly noticed by travelers, but special attention was recently given to it by Tristram who remarks: "These terraces in the old Secondary limestone must be about the present level of the Mediterranean, and they seem to tell of a period long antecedent to the Tertiary terraces and deposits below, when the old Indian Ocean wore the rocks and scooped out the caverns, as its unbroken tide swept up from the coasts of Africa; or when the Salt Sea formed one in a chain of African lakes" (Land of Israel, p. 247).\par About 230 feet above the present level of the Dead Sea are traces of another ancient shoreline, marked by a strip of alluvial marl adhering to the rocks and cliffs, particularly at the northwest angle, and down as farnas Ras el-Feshkhah (ibid. p. 256). It is also seen at Wady Derejah and Ain-Jidy. The deposit is mixed with shells of existing species, layers of gypsum, and gravel. Where there are ravines running down to the sea between high cliffs, the deposit reaches up their sides in places to a height of 400 feet, and then slopes away in a series of terraces to the present level of the sea, as if the water had gradually and slowly evaporated. At one point Tristram counted on the shore "no less than eight low gravel terraces, the ledges of comparatively recent beaches, distinctly marked. The highest of these was forty-four feet above the present sea level" (p. 278). At Jebel Shukif, a short distance north of Engedi, Tristram, in addition to the lower terraces noted elsewhere, measured the elevations of three high terraces. The first at a height of 322 feet, marked by a deposit of marl on limestone; the second 665 feet, formed of hard limestone; and the third 1654 feet, of crystalline limestone (ibid. p. 295).\par 3. Circuit of the Shore. \emdash The Contour of the Dead Sea, as delineated in most maps, is regular, the shorelines having few indentations, and the curves at the north and south being uniform. Recent researches especially those of Lynch, Robinson, and Tristram have shown that this regLVALularity of outline is incorrect, The western shore especially has long promontories and deep bays, and the curves at the north and south are very far from being so gracefully rounded as most chartographers have delineated them.\par On the north, at the embouchure of the Jordan, a low promontory is in process of gradual formation by the muddy deposits brought down by the river. It is mostly bare, destitute of all vegetation, and, like the adjoining plain, covered with a nitrous crust. At present it projects into the lake more than a mile. When the water is very high, a portion is overflowed. To the westward lies a deep bay, and beyond it a long, low isthmus, covered with cairns of loose: rounded stones. De Saulcy has given to this isthmus the name Rejum Lut, "Lot's ruin;" but this name is not heard on the spot. The ruins are shapeless and desolate. They are of the highest antiquity, and may perhaps be of the era of the "cities of the plain."\par The shoreline now trends, with an easy curve, to the southwest, and then to the south, until it reaches the bold headland of Ras el-Feshkhah. So far it is flat and sandy, and the adjoining plain dreary and naked, save where, at long intervals, a little brackish spring rises, or a tiny streamlet flows, and there cane brakes and shrubberies of tamarisk are seen. Ridges of drift mark the waterline, and are composed of broken canes and willow branches, with trunks of palms, poplars, and other trees, half imbedded in slimy mud, and all covered with incrustations of salt.\par A few miles north of Ras el-Feshkhah are some confused heaps and long ridges of loose unhewn stones and mounds of earth, to which De Saulcy has given the name Gumran. Other travelers, however, have been unsuccessful in discovering here any traces of a ruined city, or of the name which the French savant has given to it (Tristram, p. 249; Porter, Handbook, p. 203).\par Ras el-Feshkhah is a bold headland of crystalline limestone, descending from a height of some 1500 feet in broken cliffs into LVALthe deep sea. It bars all passage along the shore; but Tristram by great exertions climbed round its face. It is cleft asunder by Wady en-Nar, the continuation of the Kidron. At the base of the cliff is a vein of bituminous limestone, largely used in the manufacture of little ornaments which are sold to the pilgrims at Jerusalem. "The substance seemed to have been partially ejected in a liquid form, and to have streamed down the cliffs. It was generally mixed with flints and pebbles, sometimes covering the boulders in large splashes, and then, in the sea itself; formed the matrix of a very hard conglomerate of gravel and flints. When thrown into the fire, it burned with a sulphurous smell, but would not ignite at the flame of a lamp" (Tristram, p. 254).\par South of Ras el-Feshkhah the cliffs retreat, leaving a plain along the shore, varying from (nete to two miles in breadth, and extending to Ain-Terabeh, about six miles distant. The plain is an alluvial deposit with layers of gravel, and having spits of pure sand projecting at intervals into the sea. It is partially covered with shrubberies of tamarisk, acacia, and retem (a species of broom; the Genista roetam of Forskal, abounding in the peninsula of Sinai), and towards the south with dense cane brakes. The coating of alluvial marl which once covered it is now in many places worn away; and deep gullies rend it in all directions. Enough remains to show that its top, like that of the plains at the northern and southern ends of the lake, formed the old Tertiary level of the waters (ibid. p. 256).\par In the plain is a copious brackish spring, with a temperature of 96\'b0 Fahr. Farther south is Ain-Terabeh, a small fountain, slightly brackish, oozing up from the sand a few feet from the shore. Between it and the cliffs is a dense thicket abounding with birds and beasts: ducks, teal, pochard, thrush, bulbul; with swine, leopard, jackal, fox, hare, and porcupine (ibid. p. 273).\par From Ain-Terabeh to Ras Mersed (six miles) the coast plain is a mere sLVALtrip, frequently interrupted by rocky headlands which dip into the waves. Bitumen is here abundant with pebbles imbedded. "In a little bay, just before reaching NW Nady Shlukif, we were struck by a powerful sulphurous odor, and after some search found hot water bubbling through the gravel, at a temperature of 95\'b0 Fahr., only six inches from the sea. The smell of sulphur and rotten eggs was very strong, and while scooping in the gravel my hands became quite black, and my boots were covered with a yellow incrustation. Pebbles thrown in became incrusted with sulphur in a few minutes, and all the rocks in the sea, which were here quite hot \emdash of the temperature of 800 Fahr. \emdash were covered with it. There must be an enormous discharge of this mineral water under the sea, as the heat of the water extends for two hundred yards, and the odor to a much greater distance. The ordinary temperature of the sea elsewhere was 62\'b0" (ibid. p. 279). On the south side of this spring is Jebel Shukif, a high, bold peak projecting into the sea. Two miles beyond it is the oasis of Engedi, a plain some two miles square, forming a delta to two glens which empty into it perennial streamlets of fresh water. These, with the "fountain of the kid" itself, make this spot a paradise in the midst of a dreary desert. See ENGEDI.\par South of Engedi the plain becomes wider, but it is bare and desolate. The cliffs rise over it in broken masses of pale-brown limestone, divided by yawning chasms, while the alluvial deposits along their base are as white as snow. Two miles southward a spring of fetid water (Birket el-Khulil) oozes up on the margin of the sea, having a temperature of 88\'b0 Fahr. Other springs must exist beneath the waves, for the water near the shore is much hotter than elsewhere, and the whole surrounding air is filled with fumes of sulphureted hydrogen. No traces of trap rock are anywhere seen; but near Wady Khuderah are veins of crystalline limestone, and great quantities of flint, coated with oxide ofLVAL iron. These De Saulcy and others mistook for lava torrents. The coast has the same general features as far as the hill and fortress of Sebbeh, the ancient Masada (q.v.). There, at the base of the hill, are the remains of a Roman camp; and beyond it the aspect of the plain is that of utter and even painful sterility. "Elsewhere the desolation is comparatively partial; here it reigns supreme. The two miles of rugged slope that lay between our path and the sea are difficult to describe. They are formed of a soft, white, and very salt deposit, torn and furrowed by winter torrents in every direction, which have left fantastic ruins and castles of olden shape, flat-topped mamelons, cairns, and every imaginable form into which a wild fancy could have moulded matter, standing in a labyrinth, north and south, before and behind us" (ibid. p. 315). The Birket el-Khulil just alluded to is a shallow depression on the shore, which is filled by the water of the lake when at its greatest height, and forms a natural saltpan. After the lake retires the water evaporates from the hollow, and the salt remains for the use of the Arabs. They also collect it from similar though smaller spots farther south, and on the peninsula (Irby, June 2). One feature of the beach is too characteristic to escape mention \emdash the line of driftwood which encircles the lake, and marks the highest, or the ordinary high, level of the water. It consists of branches of brushwood, and of the limbs of trees, some of considerable size, brought down by the Jordan and other streams, and in course of time cast up on the beach. They stand up out of the sand and shingle in curiously fantastic shapes, all signs of life gone from them, and with a charred though blanched look very desolate to behold. Among them are said to be great numbers of palm trunks (Poole, p. 69); some doubtless floated over from the palm groves on the eastern shore already spoken of, and others brought down by the Jordan in the distant days when the palm flourished along its baLVALnks. The driftwood is saturated with salt, and much of it is probably of a very great age.\par Farther south the shore recedes, forming a bay some eight miles in length, the water in places almost washing the base of the cliffs. One wild glen, called UmBaghek, breaks through the mountains, and sends out a tiny stream with a dense fringe of evergreens. Not far from it is another hot sulphur spring, which spreads its suffocating odors around. On the south the bay is bounded by the oasis of the Wady Zuweireh \emdash a plain of some extent, sprinkled with tamarisks and acacias, and torn in all directions with torrent beds, through which the winter rains and the streamlets from numerous sulphurous and brackish springs find their way to the sea. The cliffs and peaks which rise over the oasis appear from a distance to exhibit traces of volcanic action, but closer inspection proves that there are no igneous rocks here or elsewhere along the western shore. Veins of ruddy limestone, blocks of ironstone, and multitudes of nodules of black flint look like trapdikes and craters in the distance. There are, however, a few cinders and scoriae observable here and there along the shore.\par A short distance south of the Wady Zuweireh is Jebel Usdum, a range of hills running from north to south a distance of seven miles, with an average elevation of three hundred feet, composed of a solid mass of rock salt. The top and sides are covered with a thick coating of marl, gypsum. and gravel, probably the remains of the Post-tertiary deposit uplifted upon the salt. The declivities of the range are steep and rugged, pierced with huge caverns, and the summit shows a serried line of sharp peaks. The salt is of a greenish-white color, with lines of cleavage as if stratified, and its base reaches far beneath the present surface. The name of the range, Khashm Usdum, appears to preserve a memorial of the ancient guilty "city of the plain." See SODOM.\par At the mouth of the Wady Zuweireh are some heaps of rough stones and the shaLVALttered walls of a small tower, marked by De Saulcy as the remains of Sodom. That city may have stood in this region, but it requires some power of imagination to identify it with these insignificant ruins.\par At the northern end of Jebel Usdum is the mouth of Wady Muhawat, which exhibits some very remarkable geological features. Its sides are cliffs of old limestone, showing here and there on their surface traces of Post-tertiary marl; "but since the marl has been washed out there has been a second filling-in of an extraordinary character, which is only now in course of denudation. There are exposed on the sides of the wady, and chiefly on the south, large masses of bitumen mingled with gravel. These overlie a thick stratum of sulphur, which again overlies a thicker stratum of sand so strongly impregnated with sulphur that it yields powerful fumes on being sprinkled over a hot coal. Many blocks of the bitumen have been washed down the gorge, and lie scattered over the plain below along with huge boulders and other traces of tremendous floods.... The layer of sulphurous sand is generally evenly distributed on the old limestone base, the sulphur evenly above it, and the bitumen in variable masses. In every way it differs from the ordinary mode of deposit of these substances as we have seen them elsewhere. Again, the bitumen, unlike that which we pick up on the shore, is strongly impregnated with sulphur, and yields an overpowering sulphurous odor; above all, it is calcined, and bears the marks of having been subjected to extreme heat." This discovery is exceedingly important; and the remarks of Tristram upon it will be read with the deepest interest by all students of the Bible. "Here, so far as I can judge, we have the only trace of anything approaching to volcanic action which we have met with in our careful examination of the northern, western, and southern shores. The only other solution of the problem \emdash the existence of a bituminous spring when the supply of water was more abundant \emdashLVAL would scarcely account for the regular deposition of sulphurous sand, and then of the sand with the bitumen superimposed. I have a great dread of seeking forced corroborations of scriptural statements from questionable physical evidence, for the sceptic is apt to imagine that when he has refuted the wrong argument adduced in support of a scriptural statement, he has refuted the scriptural statement itself; but, so far as I can understand this deposit, if there be any physical evidence left of the catastrophe which destroyed Sodom and Gomorrah, or of similar occurrences, we have it here. The whole appearance points to a shower of hot sulphur, and an irruption of bitumen upon it, which would naturally be calcined and impregnated by its fumes; and this at a geological period quite subsequent to all the diluvial and alluvial action of which we have such abundant evidence. The catastrophe must have been since the formation of the wady, since the deposition of the marl, and while the water was at its present level; therefore, probably during the historic period" (p. 355-357).\par The shoreline runs for nearly three miles southward along the base of Jebel Usdum, and then sweeps sharply round to the east, leaving on the south a naked, miry plain called Sabkah, ten miles long from north to south by about six wide. It is in summer coated with a saline crust, but is so low that when the water is high a large section of it is flooded. Numerous torrent beds from the salt range on the west, and from the higher ground of the Arabah on the south, run across it, converting large portions into impassable swamps. On its southern border the old diluvium terrace rises like a white wall to a height of more than two hundred feet. It is only on getting close to it that the sides are seen to be rent and torn into a thousand fantastic forms by winter torrents and the wearing away of the softer deposits. The Sabkah is bounded on the east by Wady Tufeileh, one of the principal drains of the Arabah, and containing a brackish, LVALperennial stream. Beyond it the character of the surface completely changes. The ground rises in an easy slope to the foot of the Moab Mountains, and is covered with dense thickets of reeds, tamarisk, acacia, retem, zyziphus, and other shrubs, intermixed with fertile fields, cultivated by the Ghawarineh Arabs (as the inhabitants of the Ghor are called, here the worst representatives of their race), and producing abundant crops of wheat, maize, indigo, melons, and cucumbers. Tristram says: "The place positively swarmed with birds in countless myriads. There were doves by the score on every bush, large and small (Turtur risorius and T. Aegyptius), bulbuls, the hopping-thrush, shrikes, the gorgeous little sun-bird resplendent in the light, and, once more, our new sparrow. The Abyssinian lark, pipits, and wagtails luxuriated in the moist rills at our feet, which were fringed by drooping tufts of caper (Capparis Aegyptiaca) in full flower. All teemed with a prodigality of life" (p. 336).\par This fertile tract touches the southeastern shore of the sea, and continues along it as it trends northeast for some five miles to the mouth of the Wady Nimeireh, becoming gradually narrower as the shoreline approaches the rocky sides of the mountains. The geological formation of this eastern range is different from the western. The front cliffs are red sandstone, apparently overlying hard, crystalline limestone, and topped by more recent calcareous rock. Trap boulders and fragments of greenstone and sienite are strewn along the base.\par Such are the great southern shores of the Dead Sea. The great valley is here narrower than at the northern shore, not because of any contraction in the mountain ranges, but arising from the ridge of Usdum, which was evidently thrown up from the bottom of the valley at some period subsequent to the formation of the Arabah. The projecting base of Jebel Usdum on the west, and the high fertile region of Es-Safieh on the east, contract the southern end of the lake into the form of a semiLVALcircular bay about six miles in diameter. A few miles farther north the shores on each side expand so much that the breadth of the sea is almost doubled. The general aspect of the shores is dreary and desolate in the extreme. The salt-incrusted plain, the white downs of the Arabah, the naked line of salt hills, the bare and scathed mountain ranges on each side, all blazing under the rays of a vertical sun, form a picture of utter and stern desolation such as the mind can scarcely conceive.\par On the northern side of Wady Nimeireh \emdash a narrow strip of saline plain, very low and very barren, intervenes between the shore and the mountains. Here and there, at a little fountain or at the mouth of a ravine, a clump of bushes or a cane brake may be seen.\par The Peninsula of el-Lisan, "the Tongue" See BAY, is the most remarkable feature on the eastern shore. It juts out opposite the great ravine of Kerak. The neck connecting it with the mainland is a strip of low, bare sand, measuring five miles across. In outline the peninsula bears some resemblance to the human foot, the toe projecting northward and forming a sharp promontory. Its length is about nine miles, and from the heel or southwestern point to the southern shoreline is seven miles. The main body is a Post-tertiary deposit composed of layers of marl, gypsum, and sandy conglomerate, manifestly coeval with the great diluvial terrace, and corresponding with it in elevation. The top is a table land, broad towards the south, but gradually narrowing to a serried ridge at the northern end. It is white and almost entirely destitute of vegetation. The surface is all rent and torn by torrent beds; and the sides are worn away into pyramidal masses resembling lines and groups of white tents. It is worthy of special note that in the wadys and along the shores pieces of sulphur, bitumen, rock salt, and pumice stone are found in great profusion. Probably, if examined with care, geological phenomena similar to those in Wady Mahawat might be found on this peLVALninsula, and some additional light thus thrown upon the destruction of the cities of the plain. Poole says "the soil appeared sulphurous" (Journal R.G.S. 26, 62-64).\par The little plain at the mouth of Wady Draa, or Kerak, affords a striking contrast, in its thickets of evergreens and luxuriant cornfields, to the arid desolation of the adjoining peninsula. It is here that the few inhabitants of the peninsula reside, in a wretched village called Mezra'ah.\par \par The shore of the Dead Sea between the peninsula and the northeastern angle has never been thoroughly explored. Seetzen, Irby and Mangles, De Saulcy, and more recently the party of the Duc de Luynes, visited a few places; and Lieut. Lynch and his officers touched at several points. A few miles north of el-Lisan the fertile plain called Ghor el-Mezra'ah terminates, and the mountains descend in sublime cliffs of red sandstone almost to the water's edge. Higher up, white, calcareous limestone appears, and forms at this place the main body of the range. Basalt also appears in places, sometimes overlying the limestone as on the plain of Bashan, at others bursting through the sandstone strata in dikes and veins. The ravines of Mojib (Arnon) and Zerka Ma'in appear like huge rents in the mountains. Near the mouth of the latter veins of gray and black trap cut through the sandstone, and a copious fountain of hot, sulphurous water sends a steaming river into the sea amid thickets of palms and tamarisks. This is Callirrhoe, so celebrated in olden time for its baths. Between this point and the plain of the Jordan volcanic eruptions have produced immense flows of basaltic rock, portions of which had been overflowed into the valley of the Jordan. Among other smaller basaltic streams three were found bordering on the eastern edge of the Dead Sea to the south of the little plain of Zarah (M. Lartet's paper to French Academy of Sciences; see in Journal of Sac. Lit. July, 1865, p. 496).\par The plain between the mountains and the mouth of the Jordan is in LVALgeneral well watered, and covered with luxuriant vegetation and occasional thickets of tamarisk, retem, and acacia. At the ruins of Suweimeh, De Saulcy found a copious hot spring with a ruinous aqueduct (Voyage en Terre-Sainte, 1, 317). Along the shore pieces of pumice stone, lava, and bitumen are found imbedded in the sand and mud as if washed up by the waves; and at this point are more distinct traces of volcanic action than elsewhere around the sea.\par One remarkable feature of the northern portion of the eastern heights is a plateau which divides the mountains halfway up, apparently forming a gigantic landing place in the slope, and stretching northward from the Wady Zerka Ma'in. It is very plainly to be seen from Jerusalem, especially at sunset, when many of the points of these fascinating mountains come out into unexpected relief. This plateau appears to be on the same general level with a similar plateau on the western side opposite to it, with the top of the rock of Sebbeh, and perhaps with the Mediterranean.\par \par 4. The dimensions of the Dead Sea have never yet been taken with sufficient accuracy. Its longest axis is situated nearly north and south. It lies between 31\'b0 6' 20 " and 31\'b0 46' N. lat., nearly; and thus its water surface is from N. to S. as nearly as possible 40 geographical, or 46 English miles long. On the other hand, it lies between 35 " 24' and 35\'b0 37' E. long., nearly; and its greatest width (some three miles south of Ain-Jidy) is about 9 geographical miles, or 10 1/3 English miles. The ordinary area of the upper portion is about 174 square geographical miles; of the channel, 29; and of the lower portion, hereafter styled the lagoon, 46 \emdash in all, about 250 square geographical miles. It must be remembered that this varies considerably at different seasons of the year, and in different years. When the sea is filled up by winter rains, the flat plain on the south is submerged for several miles. The annual rainfall, too, is not uniform in Palestine. Some yeLVALars it is more than double what it is in others, and this produces a corresponding effect on the volume of water in the sea, and consequently on its area. At its northern end the lake receives the stream of the Jordan; on its eastern side the Zerka Ma'in (the ancient Callirrhoe, and possibly the more ancient en-Eglaim), the Mojib (the Arnon of the Bible), and the Beni-Hemad. On the south the Kurahy or el-Ahsy, and on the west that of Ain-Jidy. These are probably all perennial, though variable, streams; but, in addition, the beds of the torrents which lead through the mountains east and west, and over the flat, shelving plains on both north and south of the lake, show that in the winter a very large quantity of water must be poured into it. There are also all along the western side a considerable number of springs, some fresh, some warm, some salt and fetid, which appear to run continually, and all find their way, more or less absorbed by the sand and shingle of the beach, into its waters.\par The peninsula of Lisan divides the sea into two sections: that on the north is an elongated oval in form, while that on the south is almost circular. The narrowest part of the channel between the peninsula and the mainland is not much more than two miles across. The northern section is a deep, regularly formed basin, the sides descending steeply and uniformly all round, as well on the north and south as on the east and west. This is one of the most remarkable features of the sea. Lynch ran seven lines of soundings across it from shore to shore, and found it deepest between Ain-Terabeh and Wady Mojib, that is, about the center of the northern section. From this point the depth decreased gradually towards the Lisan on the south and the mouth of the Jordan on the north. The greatest depth found by Lynch was 1308 feet, but Lieut. Molyneux records one sounding taken by him as 1350 feet. The deep part of the lake terminates at the peninsula. The greatest depth of the channel between the Lisan and the western shore is LVALonly thirteen feet, and no part of the southern section was more than twelve feet in depth (Lynch, Oficial Report, p. 43).\par It appears that when the water is very low there are two practicable fords from the peninsula to the mainland \emdash one across the narrow channel, and the other running from the isthmus to the northern point of Jebel Usdum (Seetzen, Reisen, 2, 358; Irby and Mangles, Travels, p. 140).\par 5. The depression of the Dead Sea is without a parallel in the world. From experiments made by boiling water in 1837, Messrs. Moore and Beke supposed the depression to be about 500 feet. In the following year, Russegger with his barometer made it about 1400 feet. Symonds by trigonometrical survey, in 1841, calculated the depression at 1312 feet; and the level run by Dale, an officer of Lynch's expedition, gave a result of 1316 feet. A still more careful measurement has been recently made by the corps of English engineers under Capt. Wilson, with the following result: "The levelling from the Mediterranean to the Dead Sea has been performed with the greatest possible accuracy, and by two independent observers, using different instruments, and the result may be relied upon as being absolutely true to within three or four inches. The depression of the surface on March 12, 1865, was found to be 1292 feet; but from the line of driftwood observed along the border of the Dead Sea, it was found that the level of the water at some period of the year \emdash probably during the winter freshets \emdash stands two feet six inches higher, which would make the least depression 1289.5 feet. Capt. Wilson also learned, from inquiry among the Bedouin, and from European residents in Palestine, that during the early summer the level of the Dead Sea is lower by at least six feet. This would make the greatest depression to be as near as possible 1298 feet... The most recent observation before that now given, by the Due de Luynes and Lieut. Vignes, of the French navy, agrees with our result in a very remarkablLVALe manner, considering that the result was obtained by barometric observation, the depression given by them being 1286 feet on June 7, 1864, which at most differs only twelve feet from the truth, if we suppose the Dead Sea was then at its lowest" (Sir Henry James, in the Atheneum).\par The exact amount of the depression will, of course, vary with the rise and fall of the waters at different seasons. Traces along the shore prove that the level has varied as much as fifteen feet within the past half century (Robinson, Physical Geography, p. 190). It is a singular coincidence that the depth and depression of the Dead Sea are very nearly equal, each about 1300 feet; the elevation of Jerusalem above the Mediterranean is about twice, and above the Dead Sea about three times that number (ibid. p. 190).\par 6. The water of the Dead Sea is more intensely salt than that of any other sea known. It has also a bitter, nauseous taste, and leaves upon the skin a slightly greasy feeling. Yet it is transparent as the water of the Mediterranean, and its color is the same \emdash a delicate green. Its specific gravity, and consequent buoyancy, is very great. Bathers float easily in an upright position with head and shoulders above the surface. Lynch says that eggs, which would have sunk in the ocean, floated here with only two thirds immersed. This peculiarity was well known to the ancients (Josephus, War, 4:8, 4; Aristot. Meteor. 2, 3; see also in Reland, p. 241, 249). Of its weight and inertia the American expedition had also practical experience. In the gale in which the party were caught on their first day on the lake, between the mouth of the Jordan and Ain-Feshkhah, "it seemed as if the bows of the boats were encountering the sledge-hammers of the Titans." When, however, "the wind abated, the sea rapidly fell; the water, from its ponderous quality, settling as soon as the agitating cause had ceased to act" (Lynch, Narrative, p. 268). At ordinary times there is nothing remarkable in the action of the surface of tLVALhe lake. Its waves rise and fall, and surf beats on the shore, just like the ocean. Nor is its color dissimilar to that of the sea. The water has an oily feel, owing possibly to the saponification of the lime and other earthy salts with the perspiration of the skin, and this seems to have led some observers to attribute to it a greasy look; but such a look exists in imagination only. It is quite transparent, of an opalescent green tint, and is compared by Lynch (ibid. p. 337) to diluted absinthe. Lynch (p. 296) distinctly contradicts the assertion that it has any smell, noxious or not. So do the chemists who have analyzed it. One or two phenomena of the surface may be mentioned. Many of the old travelers, and some modern ones (as Osburn, Pal. Past and Present, p. 443, and Churton, Land of the Morning, p. 149), mention that the turbid, yellow stream of the Jordan is distinguishable for a long distance in the lake. Molyneux (p. 129) speaks of a "curious broad strip of white foam which appeared to lie in a straight line nearly north and south throughout the whole length of the sea... some miles west of the mouth of the Jordan" (comp. Lynch, Narrative, p. 279, 295). "It seemed to be constantly bubbling and in motion, like a stream that runs rapidly through still water; while nearly over this track during both nights we observed in the sky a white streak like a cloud extending also north and south, and as far as the eye could reach." Lines of foam on the surface are mentioned by others, as Robinson (Physical Geography, 1, 503), Borrer (Journey, etc., p. 479), Lynch (Narrative, p. 288). From Ain-Jidy a current was observed by Mr. Clowes's party running steadily to the north not far from the shore (comp. Lynch, ibid. p. 291). It is possibly an eddy caused by the influx of the Jordan. Both De Saulcy (Narrative, Jan. 8) and Robinson (Physical Geography, 1, 504) speak of spots and belts of water remaining smooth and calm while the rest of the surface was rippled, and presenting a strong resemblance to islands (LVALcomp. Lynch, Narrative, p. 288; Irby, Travels, June 5). The haze or mist which perpetually broods over the water has already been mentioned. It is the result of the prodigious evaporation. Lynch continually mentions it. Irby (June 1) saw it in broad transparent columns, like waterspouts, only very much larger. Extraordinary effects of mirage, due to the unequal refraction produced by the heat and moisture, are occasionally seen (Lynch, Narrative, p. 320). The remarkable weight of this water is due to the very large quantity of mineral salts which it holds in solution. The details of the various analyses are given in the following table, accompanied by that of seawater for comparison. From that of the United States expedition it appears that each gallon of the water, weighing 12 \'bc lbs., contains nearly 3\'bd lbs. (3.319) of matter in solution \emdash an immense quantity when we recollect that seawater, weighing 10 \'bc lbs. per gallon, contains less than \'bd lb. Of this 3 1/3 lbs. nearly 1 lb. is common salt (chloride of sodium), about 2 lbs. chloride of magnesium, and less than \'bd lb. chloride of calcium (or muriate of lime). The most unusual ingredient is bromide of magnesium, which exists in a truly extraordinary quantity. To its presence is due the therapeutic reputation enjoyed by the lake when its water was sent to Rome for wealthy invalids (Galen, in Reland, Palaest. p. 242) or lepers flocked to its shores (Ant. Mart. \'a7 10). Boussingault (Ann. de Chimie, 1856, 48, 168) remarks that if ever bromide should become an article of commerce, the Dead Sea will be the natural source for it. It is the magnesian compounds which impart so nauseous and bitter a flavor to the water. The quantity of common salt in solution is very large. Lynch found (Narraative, p. 377) that while distilled water would dissolve 5/17 of its weight of salt, and the water of the Atlantic 1/6, the water of the Dead Sea was so nearly saturated as only to be able to take up 1/11. The above differences in the analysis of thLVALe water of the Dead Sea must be expected. When the sea is flooded by freshets, the amount of salts in solution will be less; when low, after the evaporation of the summer, the amount will be more. The presence of these foreign ingredients in such quantities is easily accounted for. The washings of the salt range of Usdum, and numerous brackish springs along the shores, supply the salt; the great sulphur fountain at Callirrhoe, and many others on the north and west, with the sulphur, bitumen, iron, etc., found so abundantly in the later deposits, supply the other ingredients. It is known also that large masses of bitumen are occasionally forced up from the bed of the sea; and it may be that beneath its waves are fountains and deposits more numerous and more remarkable than those in the surrounding rocks and plains. Then, too, the constant evaporation takes away the pure water, but leaves behind all the salts, which are thus gradually increasing in quantity.\par \par Of the temperature of the water more observations are necessary before any inferences can be drawn. Lynch (Report, May 5) states that a stratum at 59\'b0 Fahr. is almost invariably found at ten fathoms below the surface. Between Wady Zerka and Ain-Terabeh the temperature at surface was 76\'b0, gradually decreasing to 62\'b0 at 1044 feet deep, with the exception just named (Narrative, p. 374). At other times, and in the lagoon, the temperature ranged from 82\'b0 to 90\'b0, and from 5\'b0 to 10\'b0 below that of the air (ibid. p. 310-320; comp. Poole, Nov. 2). Dr. Stewart (Tent and Khan, p. 381), on March 11, 1854, found the Jordan 60\'b0 Fahr. and the Dead Sea (north end) 73\'b0; the temperature of the air being 83\'b0 in the former case and 78\'b0 in the latter.\par The water is fatal to animal life; and this fact, according to Jerome, originated the name Dead Sea (Ad Ezech. 48, 8; comp. Galen, De Simpl. 4, 19). Shells and small fish, in a dead or dying state, have been picked up along the northern shore, and are found in some of the litLVALtle fountains along the western coast; but they are all of foreign importation. Recent investigations have led some to suppose that the Dead Sea does contain and support a few inferior organizations, but the fact has not as yet been established on conclusive evidence. Lying in this deep caldron, encompassed by naked white cliffs and white plains, exposed during a great part of the year to the unclouded beams of a Syrian sun, it is not strange that the shores of the Dead Sea should exhibit an almost unexampled sterility and a death-like solitude; nor is it strange that in a rude and unscientific age the sea should have become the subject of wild and wondrous superstitions. "Seneca relates that bricks would not sink in it. Early travelers describe the lake as an infernal region; its black and fetid waters always emitting a noisome smoke or vapor, which, being driven over the land, destroys allegetation like a frost. Hence, too, the popular report that birds cannot fly over its deadly waters" (Robinson, Physical Geography, p. 199). Such stories are fabulous. It is true that the tropical heat causes immense evaporation, the exhalations from the sulphurous springs and marshes taint the air for miles, and the miasma of the swamps on the north and south gives rise to fevers, and renders the ordinary inhabitants feeble and sickly; but this has no necessary connection with the Dead Sea, or the character of its waters. The marshes of Iskanderfin are much more unhealthy than any part of the Ghor. Wherever a copious fountain bubbles up along the shores, or a mountain streamlet affords water for irrigation, tangled thickets of tropical trees, shrubs, and flowers spread out their foliage. There birds sing as sweetly as in more genial climes, and the Arab pitches his tent like his brethren on the Eastern plateau, and an abundant harvest rewards the labors of the husbandman. Tristram exclaims with something of enthusiasm, "What a sanitarium Engedi might be made, if it were only accessible, and some enterprising specuLVALlator were to establish a hydropathic establishment! Hot water, cold water, and decidedly salt water baths, all supplied by nature on the spot, the hot sulphur springs only three miles off, and some of the grandest scenery man ever enjoyed, in an atmosphere where half a lung is sufficient for respiration" (The Land of Israel, p. 295).\par III. Origin and History. \emdash It is a question of the highest importance, and one which has created much controversy among scientific and Biblical students, whether the present physical aspect of the Jordan valley and shores of the Dead Sea tends to throw any light upon its origin and changes, or upon the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah. Our knowledge of the physical structure of the Jordan valley, and of the various strata and deposits along the shores of the Dead Sea, is not yet sufficiently extensive or minute to enable us to construct a satisfactory theory on the points at issue; but it may be well to state here in a few simple propositions what are the actual statements made in Scripture about the Dead Sea, and what are the facts which scientific investigation, so far as hitherto prosecuted, has established.\par 1. The references to the Dead Sea in Scripture are few, and mostly incidental. Three passages deserve special attention.\par (1.) In Gen 13:10, where the sacred writer relates the story of the separation of Abraham and Lot, he represents the two as standing on the mountain-top east of Bethel. He then says, "Lot lifted up his eyes, and beheld all the plain (or circuit) of Jordan, that it was well watered everywhere, before the Lord destroyed Sodom and Gomorrah, even as the garden of the Lord, like the land of Egypt, as thou comest unto Zoar." It has been inferred from this that the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah, and the whole plain around them, must have been in sight at the time referred to, and must therefore have been situated at the northern end of the Dead Sea, which alone is visible from the height at Bethel. But a careful examination of theLVAL passage shows that this does not follow. The patriarchs looked towards "the circuit of the Jordan." It is not implied that they saw it all, nor is it said that Sodom and Gomorrah were in sight. They saw enough to give them a general idea of the whole region. One thing is evident from the statement: a remarkable change was effected in the plain at the time of the destruction of Sodom. It was fertile and well watered before that event, but manifestly not so, or not so much so, after it. This is corroborated by the narrative in Gen 19:24,25.\par (2.) The second passage is Gen 14:2-10, which contains the story of Lot's capture. Ver. 3 is important: "All these (kings) were joined together in the vale of Siddim, which is the Salt Sea." There cannot be a doubt that the idea here expressed is that the district called in the time of Lot "the vale of Siddim" had become, in the time of the writer, "the Salt Sea," or at least constituted a part of that sea. The Hebrew phrase establishes the identity of the two just as certainly as the similar phrase in ver. 2 establishes the identity of Bela and Zoar. The clause is found in all the ancient MSS. and versions, and in the Targum of Onkelos. Its genuineness rests on the very same basis as the other portions of the narrative. It was manifestly the opinion of Moses that the vale of Siddim was submerged. Another point in the narrative demands attention. The route of the invading host is traced. They attacked the Rephaim in Bashan, then marched southward through Moab and Edom to Paran, on the west side of the Arabah, opposite Edom. There they turned, and after resting at the fountain of Kadesh, they swept the territory of the Amalekites on the south of Judah, and of the Amorites "who dwelt in Engedi." Having thus ravaged all the countries surrounding the cities of the plain, they descended upon their territory from the west. The inhabitants now came out against them, and were marshalled in the vale of Siddim. The exact locality of the vale is not described. It may haveLVAL been north or it may have been south of Engedi. One thing, however, is certain: if the western shores of the sea were then as they are now, no army could have marched along them from Engedi to Jericho. On the other hand, from Engedi there is a good path southward. It is said, moreover, that "the vale of Siddim was full of bitumen pits" (ver. 10). There is no part of the valley north of the sea to which this would apply; nor, indeed, is there any plain or vale along its shores "full of bitumen pits" at the present day. These facts render it impossible that the vale of Siddim could have been on the plain of Jericho, and they seem to confirm the previous statement that Siddim was submerged. See SIDDIM.\par (3.) The third passage is Gen 19:24,25: "Then the Lord rained upon Sodom and upon Gomorrah brimstone and fire from the Lord out of heaven; and he overthrew those cities, and all the plain, and all the inhabitants of the cities, and that which grew upon the ground." Abraham, when, on the succeeding morning, he reached the mountain brow, "looked towards Sodom and Gomorrah, and towards all the land of the plain, and beheld, and lo, the smoke of the country went up as the smoke of a furnace" (ver. 28). As Abraham was at this time residing at Hebron, the view towards the south end of the Dead Sea would have been much more distinct than to the northern end, although the lake itself is visible from Beni-Naim (the traditionary site of Abraham's interview with Jehovah) through gaps in the western mountains (Robinson, Bib. Res. 2, 189). See SODOM.\par 2. The physical facts ascertained by scientific research are as follows: The formation of the great valley of the Jordan must have been long antecedent to historic times, and coeval with the existing mountain ranges; the valley was, at some remote period, filled with water to the level of the ocean; the water has gradually decreased, apparently by evaporation, and has left a number of shorelines, traced by terraces along the mountain sides, all antecedent to hisLVALtoric times; the portion of the Dead Sea north of el-Lisan forms a distinct basin, and appears to have done so from a time long anterior to Abraham. The southern section is different: it is very shallow; its bottom is slimy. "Sulphur springs stud its shores; sulphur is strewn, whether in layers or in fragments, over the desolate plains; and bitumen is ejected, in great, floating masses, from the bottom of the sea, oozes through the fissures of the rocks, is deposited with gravel on the beach, or, as in the Wady Mahawat, appears, with sulphur, to have been precipitated during some convulsion" (Tristram, p. 358), and that at a period long subsequent to the latest diluvial formation, and apparently within the historic period.\par There can be no doubt that the destruction of the cities was miraculous. A shower of ignited sulphur was rained upon them. May we not connect this historic fact with the observed fact just stated? Again, it is said that "the plain of Siddim was filled with bitumen pits." Bitumen is inflammable, and, when ignited by the fiery shower, would burn fiercely. May we not also connect this with the phenomena of Wady Mahawat, of which Tristram says, "The whole appearance points to a shower of hot sulphur, and an irruption of bitumen upon it, which would naturally be calcined and impregnated with its fumes?" (p. 356). The sacred writer further says that the vale of Siddim became the Salt Sea, or was submerged. The southern part of the lake is now a muddy flat, covered with a few feet of water. Suppose the vale to have sunk a few feet, or the water to have risen a few feet, after the miraculous destruction of the cities: either supposition would accord with the Biblical narrative, would not be without a parallel in the history of countries exposed to earthquakes and would not be opposed to any results of modern observation; it would accord, besides, with the views of ancient writers and with uniform Jewish tradition (Josephus, Ant. 1, 9; War, 4:8, 4; Reland, p. 254 sq.). This was the viewLVAL suggested by Dr. Robinson, and sanctioned by the distinguished geologist, Leopold von Buch. In his latest work, published since his death, Robinson says: "It seems to be a necessary conclusion that the Dead Sea extended no farther south than the peninsula, and that the cities destroyed lay on the south of the lake as it then existed. Lot fled from Sodom to Zoar, which was near (Gen 19:20); and Zoar, as we know, was in the mouth of Wady Kerak as it opens upon the neck of the peninsula. The fertile plain, therefore, which Lot chose for himself, where Sodom was situated, and which was well watered, like the land of Egypt, lay also south of the lake 'as thou comest to Zoar' (Gen 13:10,11). Even to the present day, more living streams flow into the Ghor at the south end of the sea, from wadys of the eastern mountains, than are found so near together in all Palestine besides. Tracts of exuberant fertility are still seen along the streams, though elsewhere the district around the southern bay is almost desert" (Physical Geogr. of the Holy Land, p. 213). Notwithstanding the arguments and almost contemptuous insinuations of some recent writers, not a single fact has been adduced calculated to overthrow this view; but, on the contrary, each new discovery seems as if a new evidence in its favor.\par 3. Later and Modern Notices. \emdash It does not appear probable that, with the above exception, the condition or aspect of the lake in ancient times was materially different from what it is at present. Other parts of Syria may have deteriorated in climate and appearance, owing to the destruction of the wood which once covered them; but there are no traces either of the ancient existence of wood in the neighborhood of the lake, or of anything which would account for its destruction, supposing it to have existed. A few spots-such as Ain-Jidy, the mouth of the Wady Zuweireh, and that of the Wady ed-Draa \emdash were more cultivated, and, consequently, more populous, than they are under the discouraging influences oLVALf Mohammedanism. But such attempts must always have been partial, confined to the immediate neighborhood of the fresh springs and to a certain degree of elevation, and ceasing directly irrigation was neglected. In fact, the climate of the shores of the lake is too sultry and trying to allow of any considerable amount of civilized occupation being conducted there. Nothing will grow without irrigation, and artificial irrigation is too laborious for such a situation. The plain of Jericho, we know, was cultivated like a garden; but the plain of Jericho is very nearly on a level with the spring of Ain-Jidy, some 600 feet above the Ghor el-Lisan, the Ghor es-Safieh, or other cultivable portions of the beach of the Dead Sea. Of course, so far as the capabilities of the ground are concerned (provided there is plenty of water), the hotter the climate, the better; and it is not too much to say that if some system of irrigation could be carried out and maintained, the plain of Jericho, and still more the shores of the lake (such as the peninsula and the southern plain), might be the most productive spots in the world. But this is not possible, and the difficulty of communication with the external world would alone be (as it must always have been) a serious bar to any great agricultural efforts in this district.\par When Machaerus and Callirrhoe were inhabited (if, indeed, the former was ever more than a fortress, or the latter a bathing establishment occasionally resorted to), and when the plain of Jericho was occupied with the crowded population necessary for the cultivation of its balsam gardens, vineyards, sugar plantations, and palm groves, there may have been a little more life on the shores. But this can never have materially affected the lake. The track along the western shore and over Ain-Jidy was then, as now, used for secret marauding expeditions, not for peaceable or commercial traffic. What transport there may have been between Idumaea and Jericho came by some other channel. Josephus appears to statLVALe that the Moabites crossed the sea to invade Judah (Ant. 9, 1, 2); and he informs us that the Romans used boats against the fugitive Jews (War, 4:7, 6; comp. 4:8, 4). A doubtful passage in Josephus (see Reland, Paloest. p. 252), and a reference by Edrisi (ed. Jaubert, in Ritter, Jordan, p. 700) to an occasional venture by the people of "Zara and Dara" in the 12 th century, are all the remaining allusions to the navigation of the lake known to exist, until Englishmen and Americans launched their boats on it for purposes of scientific investigation. The temptation to the dwellers in the environs must always have been to ascend to the fresher air of the heights, rather than descend to the sultry climate of the shores. It is not strange that the Dead Sea was never navigated to any extent: fish do not exist in it, and the sterile character of the shores made water transit of little importance.\par Costigan, an Irish traveler, was the first, in modern times, to navigate this Sea of Death. Having descended the Jordan in a little boat, he crossed to the peninsula of Lisan. For three days he had no fresh water, and he was carried to Jerusalem to die. No record of his journey has been found. In 1837 Moore and Beek had a light boat conveyed from Jaffa. They succeeded in visiting some points, and making a few experiments with boiling-water, which were the first to prove that the lake was below the level of the ocean. Ten years later, Lieutenant Molyneux, of the British navy, took a boat down the Jordan, visited the peninsula, and took some soundings. He was able to return to his ship, but died shortly afterwards. A brief record of his voyage is given in the Journal of the R.G.S. vol. 18. The expedition of Lynch, in 1848, was the only one crowned with success. This was in part owing to the superior organization and strength of the party, and in part to the fact that it was undertaken at a comparatively cool season \emdash April and May. Even this, however, was too late; several of the party took fever, and one LVAL\emdash Lieutenant Dale \emdash died. The unfortunate expeditions of Costigan and Molyneux were made in July and August respectively. Winter is the proper season for any such undertaking. Rain seldom falls on the shores; the air, during the depth of winter, is fresh and balmy, and cold is almost unknown.\par Josephus gives a brief description of the Dead Sea (War, 4:8, 4); and several Greek and Roman authors, scientific as \emdash well as geographical, speak of its wonders. Extracts from the principal of these may be seen in Reland's Paloestina (p. 238-258). Among modern writers, the following may be consulted with advantage: Seetzen, in Zach's Monatliche Correspondenz, vols. 17, 18, 26, 27; Burckhardt, Travels in Syria; Irby and Mangles, Travels; Wilson, Lands of the Bible; Ritter, Pal. und Syr. 2, 557-780; Poole, in Journal of R.G.S. vol. 26. The books containing the fullest and latest accounts are: Robinson, Bib. Res. 1, 501-523; 2, 187-192; andPhysical Geogr. of Pal. p. 187-216; De Saulcy, Voyage autour de la Mer Morte, and Voyage en Terre-Sainte; Tristram, The Land of Israel, p. 242-366; Land of Moab (1873); Lynch, Official Report, which contains Anderson's Geological Reconnaissance (published at the National Observatory, Washington, 1852); Ridgaway, The Lord's Land, p. 344-464. There is an old monograph on the Dead Sea by Wahner, De <START HEBREW>jl^M#h^ <y^<END HEBREW>\par (Helmst. 1712); and a recent one by Fraas, Das todte Meer (Stuttg. 1867). See DEAD SEA.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SALT, CITY OF\par Salt, City Of\par (Heb. Ir ham-Me'lach, <START HEBREW>jl^M#h^\'c1ryu<END HEBREW>\par ; Sept. <START GREEK>\par ai( po/lei$ Sadw=n<END GREEK>\par , v.r. <START GREEK>\par h( po/li$ tw=n a(lw=n<END GREEK>\par ; Vulg. civitas Salis), the fifth of the six cities of Judah which lay in the "wilderness" (Josh 15:62). Its proximity to Engedi, and the name itself, seem to point to its being situated close to. or at any rate in the neighborhood of the Salt Sea. Dr. Robinson (Bib. Res. 2, 109) expresses his belief that it lay somewhere near the plain at the south end of that lake, which he would identify with the Valley of Salt (q.v.). This, though possibly supported by the reading of the Vatican Sept., "the cities of Sodom," is at present a mere conjecture, since no trace of the name or the city has yet been discovered in that position. On the other hand, Van de Velde (Syr. and Pal. 2, 99; Memoir, p. 111, and Map) mentions a Nahr Maleh which he passed in his route from Wady el-Rmail to Sebbeh, the name of which (though the orthography is not certain) may be found to contain a trace of the Hebrew. It is one of four ravines which unite to form the Wady el-Bedun. Another of the four, Wady 'Amreh (ibid.), recalls the name of Gomorrah, to the Hebrew of which it is very similar. It seems most probable that it took its name from salt works or mines. At the southwestern extremity of the Dead Sea stands a remarkable range of hills of pure salt, and near them "the City of Salt" was perhaps situated. There are ancient ruins at the mouth of Wady Zuweireh, at the northern end of the range; and others at Um-Baghek, five miles farther north. One or other of these places may mark the site of "the City of Salt" (Van de Velde, Meemoir, p. 345; Tristram, Land of Israel, p. 318 sq.). See JUDAH.\par (from MLVALcClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } 0LVAL@{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SALT, ECCLESIASTICAL USE OF\par \par Salt, Ecclesiastical Use Of.\par \par It would appear from a sentence of Augustine that in the 4 th century was customary to use salt in baptism, at least in Milan. Salt was placed in some churches on the tongues of the catechumens, as an emblem of wisdom and an admonition to attain it. With salt, milk and honey were given. In the Sacramentary of Gregory the Great, after a form for the benediction and consecration of salt, it is said, "Hac oratione expleta, accipiat sacerdos de eodem sale, et ponat in ore infantis, dicendo, Accipe sal sapientiae in vitam aeternam" ("This benediction being finished, let the priest take a portion of the same salt and put it into the mouth of the infant, saying, Take the salt of wisdom to eternal life "). \par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SALT, VALLEY OF\par Salt, Valley Of\par (Heb. <START HEBREW>jl^m@ ayG@<END HEBREW>\par , Gey Melach, but twice with the article, <START HEBREW>jl^M#h^ G@<END HEBREW>\par ; Sept. <START GREEK>\par Gebele/m, Gemele/d, koila\\$<END GREEK>\par [or <START GREEK>\par fa/ragc<END GREEK>\par ] <START GREEK>\par tw=n a(lw=n<END GREEK>\par ; v.r. <START GREEK>\par Ghmala/<END GREEK>\par , <START GREEK>\par Gaimela/<END GREEK>\par ; Vulg. Vallis Salinarum), a certain valley \emdash or perhaps more accurately a "ravine," the Hebrew word gey appearing to bear that signification \emdash in which occurred two memorable victories of the Israelitish arms.\par 1. That of David over the Edomites (2 Sam 8:13; 1 Chron 18:12). It appears to have immediately followed his Syrian campaign, and was itself one of the incidents of the great Edomitish war of extermination. The battle in the Valley of Salt appears to have been conducted by Abishai (1 Chron 18:12), but David and Joab were both present in person at the battle and in the pursuit and campaign which followed; and Joab was left behind for six months to consummate the: doom of the conquered country (1 Kings 11:15,16; Ps 60:1, title). The number of Edomites slain in the battle is uncertain: the narratives of Samuel and Chronicles both give it at 18,000, but this figure is lowered in the title of Ps 55 to 12,000. See DAVID.\par 2. That of Amaziah (2 Kings 14:7; 2 Chron 25:11), who is related to have slain 10,000 Edomites in this valley, and then to have proceeded with 10,000 prisoners to the stronghold of the nation at has-Sela, the Cliff, i.e. Petra, and, after taking it, to have massacred them by hurling them down the precipice which gave its ancient name to the city. See EDOM.\par Neither of these notices affords any clue to the situation of the ValleLVALy of Salt, nor does the cursory mention of the name ("Gemela" and "Mela") in the Onomasticon. By Josephus it is not named on either occasion. Seetzen (Reisen, 2, 356) was probably the first to suggest that it was the broad, open plain which lies at the lower end of the Dead Sea, and intervenes between the lake itself and the range of heights which crosses the valley at six or eight miles to the south. The same view is taken (more decisively) by Dr. Robinson (Bib. Res. 2, 109). The plain is in fact the termination of the Gh8 r or valley through which the Jordan flows from the Lake of Tiberias to the Dead Sea. Its northwest corner is occupied by the Khashm Usdum, a mountain of rock salt, between which and the lake is an extensive salt marsh, while salt streams and brackish springs pervade, more or less, the entire western half of the plain. Without presuming to contradict this suggestion, which yet can hardly be affirmed with safety in the very imperfect condition of our knowledge of the inaccessible regions south and southeast of the Dead Sea, it may be well to call attention to some considerations which seem to stand in the way of the implicit reception which most writers have given it since the publication of Dr. Robinson's Researches. (So Van de Velde, Memoir, p. 346; also Keil on 2 Kings 14:7.) See SODOM.\par (a.) The word Gey (<START HEBREW>ayG@<END HEBREW>\par ), employed for the place in question, is not elsewhere applied to a broad valley or sunk plain of the nature of the lower Ghor. Such tracts are denoted in the Scripture by the word Emek or Bika'ah, while Gey appears to be reserved for clefts or ravines of a deeper and narrower character. See VALLEY.\par (b.) A priori, one would expect the tract in question to be called in. Scripture by the peculiar name uniformly applied to the more northern parts of the same valley, ha-Arabah, in the same manner that the Arabs now call it el-Ghor, "Ghor" being their equivalent for the Hebrew "Arabah." See ARABAH.\par (c.) The name "Salt," though at fiLLVAL\rst sight conclusive, becomes less so on reflection. It does not follow, because the Hebrew word melach signifies salt, that therefore the valley was salt. A case exactly parallel exists at el-Milh, the representative of the ancient Moladah, some sixteen miles south of Hebron. Like melach, milh signifies salt; but there is no reason to believe that there is any salt present there, and Dr. Robinson (Bib. Res. 2, 201, note) himself justly adduces it as "an instance of the usual tendency of popular pronunciation to reduce foreign proper names to a significant form." Just as el-Milh is the Arabic representative of the Hebrew Moladah, so possibly was Gey Melach the Hebrew representative of some archaic Edomitish name.\par (d.) What little can be inferred from the narrative as to the situation of the Gey Melach is in favor of its being nearer to Petra. Assuming Selah to be Petra (the chain of evidence for which is tolerably connected), it seems difficult to believe that a large body of prisoners should have been dragged for upwards of fifty miles through the heart of a hostile and most difficult country merely for massacre. See PETRA.\par It would seem probable from the above considerations that the sacred writers do not refer to the Arabah, or great plain south of the Dead Sea, but rather to one or other of the passes leading from it, either up into Judah, on the one side, or Edom, on the other. Wady Zuweireh, a well known pass at the northern end of the salt range of Usdum, might be the one meant, though the scope of the narrative would rather seem to locate it nearer Edom. Schwarz (Palest. p. 21, 22) fixes the valley at the same point, the southwest extremity of the Dead Sea, and thinks that Zoar is called the "City of Salt" in Josh 15:62, because of the salt mountain near it. See SALT, CITY OF.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } LVAL{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SALTER, RICHARD\par \par Salter, Richard, D.D.,\par \par a Congregational minister of New England, was born in Boston, Mass., in 1723. In due time he entered Harvard College, from which he graduated with honor, 1739. He studied and practiced medicine, but afterwards chose the ministry for his life work. Ile was settled in Mansfield, Conn., and ordained. June 27, 1744. Not long after Salter's settlement, a serious difficulty commenced in his church, in consequence of some of the members declaring in favor of the "Separatists" (q.v.), and the difficulty was protracted through several years. Peace was restored only after twenty-four of the members were expelled. He continued actively engaged until 1787, when his strength began perceptibly to decline. In 1771 he was elected a fellow of Yale College, and was presented, 1782, by the same college with the degree of D.D. In 1781 he gave, by deed, a farm to Yale College "for encouraging and promoting the study of the Hebrew language, and other Oriental languages." He was twice married, but had no children. He preached the Connecticut Election Sermon (1768), which was published. He died in 1793. See Sprague, Annals of the Amer. Pulpit, 1, 421 sq.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } >LVALP{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SALTHEN, DANIEL LORENZ\par \par Salthen, Daniel Lorenz\par \par a Lutheran theologian, was born March 16, 1701, at Markin, near Upsala, and died at Konigsberg, January 29, 1750, doctor and professor of theology. He wrote, De Articulis Smalcaldicis (Konigsberg, 1729): \emdash Introductio in Omnes Libros Sacros (1736): \emdash De Auctore Libri Sapientiae (1739). See Furst, Bibl. Jud. s.v.; Winer, Handbuch der theol. Lit. 1:329; Jocher, Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon, s.v.\par \par B. P. \par \par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SALTER, SAMUEL\par \par Salter, Samuel, D.D.,\par \par a learned English divine, was born at Norwich, and educated at the free school of that city, at the Charter House, and at Benedict College, Cambridge, of which he was elected a fellow. He became rector of Burton College, Lincolnshire, and prebendary of Norwich; minister of Great Yarmouth, 1750; preacher at Charter House, 1754; rector of St. Bartholomew the Less, London, 1756; and master of the Charter House, 1761. He died 1772. Several sermons of his were published (Lond. 1755, 1762). See Darling, Cyclop. Bibliog. s.v.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVALr {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SALU\par \par Sa'lu\par \par (Heb. Salu', <START HEBREW>aWls*\par <END HEBREW>, weighed; Sept. \par <START GREEK>Salw/\par <END GREEK> v.r. \par <START GREEK>Salmw/n\par <END GREEK>), a prince and head of a house among the children of Simeon; father of the Zimri who was slain by Phinehas for bringing the Midianitish woman into the camp of Israel (Num 25:14; see ver. 7 sq.). B.C. ante 1618. \par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } {\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 SALTMARSH, JOHN\par \par Saltmarsh, John,\par \par an Antinomian divine, was born in Yorkshire, England. He was educated at Magdalen College, Cambridge, became minister of Brasted, Kent, and chaplain in the army under Essex. He subsequently settled at Ilford, Essex, where he died in 1647. He published a number of works: The Smoke in the Temple (Lond. 1646, 4 to): \emdash Free Grace (ibid. 1645, 4 to): \emdash Sparkles of Glory (ibid. 1647, 12 mo), and others. See Allibone, Dict. of Authors, s.v.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVALh{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 SALTZMANN, FRIEDRICH RUDOLF\par Saltzmann, Friedrich Rudolf,\par an eminent, and once very popular, Protestant author, was born at Strasburg, March 9, 1749. He studied in the gymnasium, and then in the University of Strasburg. After his graduation in 1773, he journeyed through Italy and Germany, and then took charge of the education of the young Baron (afterwards Prussian minister) von Stein. Subsequently he lectured on history in Strasburg, but without great success. He next edited a political paper, and thereby came into suspicion of aristocratic tendencies among the radicals and terrorists of the French Revolution. He was forced to flee and to live in disguise until the downfall of Robespierre, meantime suffering the seizure and appropriation of his large property in Strasburg. During this period of trials his religious life came to rapid maturity. Raised in strict Protestant principles, he now came into contact with French mystics and theosophists. At the close of the Revolution he returned to Strasburg, and began the publication of a series of religious and mystical works, which made him many friends, and which enjoyed a very wide circulation. Among these publications were, Das christliche Erbauungsblatt, which was issued for many years, from 1805 and on: \emdash Es wird Alles neu werden (1802-10), a work in seven instalments, consisting of essays upon, and extracts from, the chief mystics and theosophists \emdash Rusbroeck, Terstegen, Catherine of Sienna, Mesdames Bourignon, Guyon, Leade, and Browne, also Swedenborg, and Bromley: \emdash On the Last Things (1806): \emdash Glances at God's Dealings with Man from the Creation to the End of the World (1810), in which the author gives a surv