Standard Jet DBnb` Ugr@?~1y0̝cßFNa7wޜ(9,`~{6߱]nC53y[/|*|l!{f_Љ$g'DeFx -bT4.0a\n'R~ Y S  Y   Y Y  Y Y  Y  Y  Y   Y u Y o Y n Y z Y 2lY  Y  z Y  pY ConnectDatabaseDateCreateDateUpdate FlagsForeignNameIdLvLvExtraLvModule LvPropName OwnerParentIdRmtInfoLongRmtInfoShortTypeniVVVVYYIdParentIdName        OYS Y Y Y  Y 2ACMFInheritableObjectIdSID YObjectId Y SY  Y Y Y  Y P Y Y  Y AttributeExpressionFlagLvExtra Name1 Name2ObjectId Ordertt tY"ObjectIdAttribute -YSY Y Y  Y  Y  Y V Y V Y ccolumn grbiticolumnszColumnszObject$szReferencedColumn$szReferencedObjectszRelationshipVVV VVVV VVVV VYYYszObject$szReferencedObjectszRelationshipYv1b N  : k & W  C t/ RRRR@@X  @@OJmJLJkQkiQ^JmYdbkWYfkmJL^Qk`kvkJMQk`kvkdL[QMmk`kvkhoQiYQk`kvkiQ^JmYdbkWYfkmdfYMbdmQk`kvkOL  @~  @ @R R R R R RRRRRRRRRRRRR      d k f  &*P@x*P@Topic Notes /@RDDD88888886 @(P@(P@MSysRelationships!-DDDDDDDDDDB (P@(P@MSysQueries!-88888888886 (P@(P@MSysACEs!-22222222220 (P@(P@MSysObjects!-88888888886 (P@(P@MSysDb /.........., (P@(P@Relationships!-<<<<<<<<<<: (P@(P@Databases!-44444444442 (P@(P@Tables!-.........., jY##N####Y Y Ld YID TitleComments,Q&#@& YYIDPrimaryKeyXAr@f$p@8 4H 8d@0 g 0f <d 0 &0< ``boA`8 ` f 8 P H $H@'0$p!>H9 6O RQz=)P   @?  @ @ @        @@@@ @ @LVAL [{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fcharset0 Times New Roman;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 arial;}{\f2\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f3\fnil\fcharset2 Symbol;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue128;\red0\green0\blue255;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\sb100\sa100\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs20 Jeanna Bryner\cf0\fs24\line\fs20 Staff Writer\line\cf1 SPACE.com\cf0 \fs24 Thu Apr 19, 11:30 AM ET \par \trowd\trgaph10\trleft-10\trpaddl10\trpaddr10\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalc\cellx1862\pard\intbl\sb100\sa100\f1\fs18 ADVERTISEMENT\f0\fs24\line\cell\row\pard\sb100\sa100 Astronomers have recorded heavenly music bellowed out by the Sun's atmosphere. \par Snagging orchestra seats for this solar symphony would be fruitless, however, as the frequency of the sound waves is below the human hearing threshold. While humans can make out sounds between 20 and 20,000 hertz, the solar sound waves are on the order of milli-hertz--a thousandth of a hertz.\par The study, presented this week at the Royal Astronomical Society's National Astronomy Meeting in Lancashire, England, reveals that the {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/solarsystem/trace_update_000926.html"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul looping magnetic fields}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 along the Sun's outer regions, called the corona, carry magnetic sound waves in a similar manner to musical instruments such as guitars or pipe organs. \par \b Making music\b0\par Robertus von Fay-Siebenburgen of the Solar Physics and Space Plasma Research Center at the University of Sheffield and his colleagues combined information gleaned from {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/070301_stereo_panorama.html"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul sun-orbiting satellites}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 with theoretical models of solar processes, such as coronal mass ejections. \par They found that {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/070220_sun_spole.html"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul explosive events at the Sun'LVALs surface}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 appear to trigger acoustic waves that bounce back and forth between both ends of the loops, a phenomenon known as a standing wave.\par "These magnetic loops are analogous to a simple guitar string," von Fay-Siebenburgen explained. "If you pluck a guitar string, you will hear the music."\par In the cosmic equivalent of a guitar pick, so-called microflares at the base of loops could be plucking the magnetic loops and setting the sound waves in motion, the researchers speculate. While {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "http://www.space.com/solar-flares/"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul solar flares}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 are the largest explosions in the solar system, microflares are a million times smaller but much more frequent; both phenomena are now thought to funnel heat into the Sun's outer atmosphere. \par The acoustic waves can be extremely energetic, reaching heights of tens of miles, and can travel at rapid speeds of 45,000 to 90,000 miles per hour. "These [explosions] release energy equivalent to millions of hydrogen bombs," von Fay-Siebenburgen said. \par "These energies are plucking these magnetic strings or standing pipes, which set up standing waves--exactly the same waves you see on a guitar string," von Fay-Siebenburgen told SPACE.com. The "sound booms" decay to silence in less than an hour, dissipating in the hot solar corona. \par \b Solar physics\b0\par The musical finding could help explain why the Sun's corona is so hot.\par While the Sun's surface is a steamy 10,000 degrees Fahrenheit (5,538 degrees Celsius), plasma gas in the corona soars to more than 100 times hotter. \par "How can the atmosphere above the surface of the Sun be hotter if nuclear fusion happens inside the Sun?" von Fay-Siebenburgen said. If astronomers can get a clearer picture of what's going on inside these magnetic loops in the Sun's atmosphere, they have a better chance of finding the answer. \par Another recent study using images from Hinode's telescope revealed {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPELVALRLINK "http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/070321_solarb_update.html"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul twisted magnetic fields along the Sun's surface}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 , which store huge amounts of energy. The magnetic fields can snap like a rubber band; when they do, they might release energy that could heat up the corona or power solar eruptions and coronal mass ejections, the researchers say. \par \pard{\pntext\f3\'B7\tab}{\*\pn\pnlvlblt\pnf3\pnindent360{\pntxtb\'B7}}\fi-360\li720\sb100\sa100{\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "http://www.space.com/php/video/player.php?video_id=sun_storm"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Video: Sun Storms}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 \par {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "{\pntext\f3\'B7\tab}http://www.space.com/php/multimedia/imagegallery/igviewer.php?imgid=3262&gid=243&index=0"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Images: Solar Flares}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 \par {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "{\pntext\f3\'B7\tab}http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/070321_solarb_update.html"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Twisted Solution to Sun's Mystery Heat}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 \par {\pntext\f3\'B7\tab}Original Story: {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/070418_solar_music.html"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Sun's Atmosphere Sings}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24\par \pard\sb100\sa100 Visit {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "http://www.space.com/"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul SPACE.com}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 and explore our huge collection of {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "http://www.space.com/php/multimedia/imagegallery/"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Space Pictures}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 , {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "http://www.space.com/php/video/"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Space Videos}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 , {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "http://www.space.com/imageoftheday/"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Space Image of the Day}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 , {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "http://www.space.com/hottopics/"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Hot Topics}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 , {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "http://www.space.com/top10/"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Top 10s}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\LVAL*fs24 , {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "http://www.space.com/multimedia/"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Multimedia}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 , {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "http://www.space.com/quiztrivia/"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Trivia}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 , {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "http://www.space.com/voting/"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Voting}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 and {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "http://www.space.com/amazingimages/"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Amazing Images}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 . Follow the latest developments in the search for life in our universe in our {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "http://www.space.com/searchforlife/"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul SETI: Search for Life}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 section. Join the community, sign up for our {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "http://www.space.com/community/"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul free daily email newsletter}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 , listen to our {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "http://www.space.com/php/siteinfo/RSSinfo.php"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Podcasts}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 , check out our {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "http://www.space.com/php/siteinfo/RSSinfo.php"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul RSS feeds}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 and other {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "http://www.space.com/readerfavorites/"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Reader Favorites}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 today!\par \pard\cf3\f2\fs29 DILDA\par \b\fs20 [SEE VOID OR A VOICE 2PE 1:18]\b0\fs29\par } FE[ 7 \ # c <  W ( _ 6  zA\1Ew6Ql/\#h%JMACEDONIUSz [&IMACEDONIANT@r&HMACEDONIAjGu [$GMACEDO, FRANCISCO DE4s [:.FMACEDO, ANTONIOt@r0$EMACDONALD, JAMES MADISONl@qB6DMACDILL, DAVID@p."CMACCOVIUS, JOHNdn [0$BMACCLINTOCK, SAMUEL @m8,AMACCARTY, THADDEUS @l6*@MACCARTHY, NICHOLAS TUITE DE @kJ>?MACCAGHWELL, HUGHh@j4(>MACCABEES, THIRD BOOK OF}b [B6=MACCABEES, SECOND BOOK OFV [D8<MACCABEES, FOURTH BOOK OF^P [D8;MACCABEES, FIRST BOOK OFIJD [B6:MACCABEES, FIFTH BOOK OFH? [B69MACCABEES, FESTIVAL OF THE @>F:8MACCABEES, BOOKS OF ; [8,7MACCABEES 2r- [(6MACCABEES 1~^ [(5MACBRIDE, JOHN DAVID@:.4MACBETH@ 3MACAULEY, THOMAS @2&2MACAULAY, ZACHARY@4(1MACAULAY, AULAY@0$0MACASSAR VERSIONB@2&/MACASSAR@".MACARIUSv* ["-MACARITESR @$,MACALON@  +MAC-^@ *MAC GILL, STEVENSON  [8,)MABOUL, JACQUES@ 0$(MABON, JOHN SCOTT@ 4('MABILLON, JEAN7 [."&MABDAI@%MABJ@ $MAAZIAHr @ #MAAZ@"MAASIAS^@ !MAASIAI@  MAASEIAH & ["MAARATHF [ MAAN, JOHN@&MAALEH-ADUMMIM@."MAALEH-ACRABBIMb@0$MAAINI@MAAIDIAH0@"MAAId@MAADAI@SMAACAH: [PRESBYTERY [&PRESBYTERIUM [*PRESBYTERIANS T3 [."PRESBYTERIANISM [0$PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES 5( [@4PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES 4 [@4PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES 3 [@4PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES 2o [@4PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES 1T [@4 PRESBYTERIAN ALLIANCE@S<0 PRESBYTERIAL CONSECRATION|K [D8 PRESBYTER"> [$ PADILLA, JUAN DEr6 [2& OBERAMMERGAU PASSION PLAYzJ1 [D8OBER-AMMERGAU80- [, NONCONFORMITY (ANGLICAN)U [B6MESOBAITE @$MUSIC IN THE HEAVENS: [:.LVAL{\rtf1\ansi\ansicpg1252\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 MESOBAITE\par \par Meso'baite\par \par (Hebrews Metsobayah', <START HEBREW>hy*b*x)m=\par <END HEBREW>, garrison of Jehovah, being apparently the name of the place itself, used for a gentile, the preceding noun being regarded as in the construct; Sept. \par <START GREEK>Meswbi/a\par <END GREEK> v. r. \par <START GREEK>Meinabei/a\par <END GREEK>, Vulg. Masobia), a designation of Jasiel, the last named of David's body-guard (1 Chron 11:47), probably meaning of Mesobaiah, as being his place of residence; but, no other clue being given to its locality there is no room even to conjecture its position. Possibly it is rather the name of a person from whom he was descended; but the form and construction are equally difficult as a patronymic. Perhaps we should point <START HEBREW>hy)b*X)M!h^\par <END HEBREW>, and thus refer to ZOBAH as the place of his nationality. Kennicott's conclusion (Dissertation, p. 233, 234) is that originally the word was "the Metsobaites" (<START HEBREW><y!b*x)M=h^\par <END HEBREW>), and applied to the three names preceding it.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVAL [{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 NONCONFORMITY (ANGLICAN)\par Nonconformity\par in the Anglican fold is almost coeval with the English Reformation. Nonconformists of England may be considered under three heads.\par 1.\tab Such as absent themselves from divine worship in the Established Church through total irreligion, and attend the service of no other persuasion.\par 2.\tab Such as absent themselves on the plea of conscience; as Presbyterians, Independents, Baptists, etc.\par 3.\tab Internal Nonconformists, or unprincipled clergymen, who applaud and propagate doctrines quite inconsistent with several of those articles which they promised on oath to defend.\par Before the Reformation, and for some years after the beginning of queen Elizabeth's reign, there was no organized body of separatists from the Church of England. In many respects the Lollards closely resembled the Puritans of Elizabeth's time; and it is probable that, notwithstanding the check received from the sanguinary law of Henry IV, many held the principles of Wickliffe down to the time of Henry VIII. But Lollardism, though it had its conventicles and schools, did not secede and organize itself into a sect. The Christian Brethren (see Blunt, Hist. of the Reformation, p. 525) and the Cambridge party (ibid. p. 527), who, if not Lollards in name, no doubt sprang from the Lollards, were still parties in the Church. Yet Lollardism, which contributed largely to form in England the state of the public mind that produced the Reformation, exerted also that influence to which must be ascribed much of the revolutionary spirit and zeal which engendered nonconformity. Again, the followers of the Anabaptists cannot be considered as by themselves an organized body of separatists. After the taking of Munster, in 1535, Anabaptists found their way through Holland into England. The fiLVALrst notice of them in English history is in 1538. The English who joined them were treated by Elizabeth just as she treated the foreigners themselves \emdash being ordered to depart the realm. Notwithstanding the order, several remained and joined the French and Dutch congregations in London, and in towns near the coast. From these there can be little doubt sprang the sect of Baptists, who may be distinguished from their parent stock in 1620. when they presented a petition to Parliament, disclaiming the false notions of the Anabaptists, and who first became an organized sect under Henry Jessey in 1640. Nonconformity proper first begins with the refugees from Frankfort and Geneva. They brought back with them Genevan doctrine, discipline, and worship, and gradually the spirit they introduced leavened the dissatisfied ones in the establishment, until nonconformity resulted.\par Nonconformity cannot, clearly then, be traced to any sect: that may have found shelter in England, and it is necessary to review the early history of the establishment to find traces of its origin. It will be remembered that it was in the reign of king Edward VI that the English Reformed Church first received a definite constitution. During the time of Henry VIII it remained in a great measure unsettled, and was subject to continual variation, according to the caprice of the king. As organized by Edward, while Calvinistic in its creed, it was Episcopalian in its government, and retained in its worship many of those forms and observances which had been introduced in the days of Roman Catholic ascendency. In the first of these particulars it resembled, and in the last two it differed from the Genevan Church. During the temporary restoration of the Roman Catholic faith under the administration of Philip and Mary, great numbers of the persecuted disciples of the Reformed faith sought refuge in France, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and other parts of the Continent. Of those who fled to Germany, some observed the ecclesiastical order LVALestablished by Edward; others, not without warm disputes with their brethren, which had their beginning at Frankfort, adopted the Swiss mode of worship, preferring it as more simple, and more agreeable to Scripture and primitive usage. Those who composed the latter class were called Nonconformists. The distinction has been permanent, and the name has been perpetuated. Queen Elizabeth's accession to the throne, in 1558, opened the way for the return of the exiles to the land of their fathers. It was natural for each of the parties of these forced exiles to advocate at home the systems of worship to which they had been respectively attached while abroad; and the controversy which had been agitated by them in a foreign country immediately. became, a matter of contention with the great body of Protestants in their own. It suited neither the views nor inclinations of that princess to realize the wishes of the Nonconformists, or Puritans, as they began to be called, by giving her sanction to the opinions which they maintained, and assenting to the demands which they made. The plain and unostentatious method of religious service which they recommended did not accord with that love of show and pomp for which she was remarkable; and the policy of the early part of her reign, in which she was supported by the high dignitaries both in the Church and State, was to conciliate her Roman Catholic subjects, who, in rank, wealth, and numbers, far exceeded the Nonconformists. The liturgy of Edward VI having been submitted to a committee of divines, and certain alterations betraying a leaning to Popery rather than to Puritanism having been made, the Act of Uniformity was passed, which, while it empowered the queen and her commissioners to "ordain and publish such further ceremonies and rites" as might be deemed advisable, forbade, under severe penalties, the performance of divine service except as prescribed in the Book of Common Prayer. For some years the contest had turned principally on the question. of ecclesiasticaLVALl dress; but this action of the queen caused separate congregations to be formed in 1566, in which the Prayerbook was wholly laid aside, and the service was conducted by the book of the English refugees at Geneva. Among the leaders of these separatists, Cartwright held that presbyters assembled in synod had an authority the same in kind with that of bishops. He was the founder of the Presbyterians, aided in his enterprise by the influence and example of Scotland, which had well learned the lessons of Geneva. Brown found the ecclesia in the congregation, and denied the authority both of bishop and synod. From him descend the Independents, Robinson being the founder of the separate sect. In later times the Quakers appear in considerable numbers. There were some minor sects, such as the Family of Love, an offshoot of the Anabaptists; but the four sects \emdash Presbyterians, Independents, Baptists, and Quakers-with the popish recusants, made up the great body of Nonconformists until the rise of Wesleyan Methodism. Against these it was that canons and acts of Parliament were directed.\par The special Act of Uniformity had only been partially carried into effect from the time of its being passed, in 1558, to 1565. But in 1565 it began to be rigidly enforced, and many of the Nonconformists were deprived of their preferments (for, notwithstanding their sentiments, most of them had still remained in connection with the Established Church, being from principle averse to an entire separation); many also were committed to prison. The High Commission Court, tyrannical in its very constitution, became still more severe in the exercise of its functions; and at length, in 1593, the Parliament declared that all persons above sixteen years of age who should absent themselves for one month from the parish church should be banished from the kingdom; and if they returned without license, should be sentenced to death as felons." These provisions, though directed principally against the Roman Catholics, affected the ProtLVALestant Nonconformists with equal severity; and, with reference both to Roman Catholics and Protestants who dissented from the Church of England, were unjust and impolitic. The Nonconformists during the reign of Elizabeth are not to be regarded as an unimportant faction. Both among the clergy and the laity they were a numerous body; and they would have been powerful in proportion to their number had they only been more closely united among themselves. A motion made in 1561, at the first convocation of the clergy which was held in England, to do away with the ceremonies and forms to which the Puritans objected, was lost by a majority of only one, even though the queen and the primate, Parker, were well known to be opposed to such a change. In the Commons the Puritan influence was strong; and if that house be supposed, in any adequate degree, to have represented the people for whom it legislated, their numerical force throughout the country generally must necessarily have been great. Without presumption, therefore, they might have expected that their remonstrances would be listened to and their grievances redressed. Certainly it would have been wiser in the government to endeavor to secure their support than to awaken their discontent and provoke their opposition, more especially when the hostile aspect of foreign nations is considered, and when we remember that the English Roman Catholics, whose numbers and power rendered them particularly formidable, were eagerly watching every symptom favorable to the re-establishment of the ancient faith. Nor would it have been a difficult matter to yield to the claims of the Nonconformists. The moderate among them sought not the overthrow of the ecclesiastical constitution, but contended merely that certain rites and observances. which they regarded as departures from the purity and simplicity of Christian worship, should be dispensed with; and, generally, that matters commonly recognized as things indifferent should not be insisted on as indispensable Doubtless manLVALy were less reasonable in their demands, and injustice and persecution tended much to increase their number. A party, at the head of which was professor Cartwright, of Cambridge, desired a change, not only in the forms of worship, but in Church polity also, and would have substituted Presbytery in the room of Episcopacy. Another party, viz., the Independents, or Brownists, as they were termed, going still farther, wished the disseverment of the connection between Church and State altogether. Still there is every reason to believe that a slight concession to the demands of the less violent, and the display of a spirit of forbearance, would have satisfied many, would have allayed the dissatisfaction of all, and would have been the reverse of disagreeable to the country generally. Unfortunately an opposite course of policy in this and subsequent reigns was chosen; which ultimately conducted to the horrors of a civil war, the subversion of the regal authority, and those disastrous events which make the history of the 17 th century one of the most melancholy pages of the annals of England.\par Queen Elizabeth died in 1603, and was succeeded by James VI of Scotland. From one who, like him, had been the member of a Presbyterian Church, and had on more than one occasion expressed his decided attachment to its principles and worship, the Nonconformists, not without reason, expected more lenient treatment than they had met with in the preceding reign. But their expectations were bitterly disappointed. In compliance with their petitions, a conference was indeed appointed and held at Hampton Court, at which nine bishops and as many dignitaries were present on the one side, and four Puritan ministers, selected by James, on the other. The king himself presided, and took part in the debate. But no good results ensued. The Nonconformist representatives were loaded with insults, and dismissed in such a manner as might well give birth to the darkest anticipations regarding the fate of the party to which they belonged.LVAL Shortly after a few slight alterations of the national rubric were made, and a proclamation issued requiring the strictest conformity. In 1604 the Book of Canons was passed by a convocation, at which bishop Ban croft presided. It announced severe temporal and spiritual penalties against the Puritan divines, and was followed up by unsparing persecutions. In spite, however, of all the means employed for its eradication, the cause of Nonconformity advanced. In the Church itself there were many of the clergy who held the Puritan opinions, though they deemed it inexpedient to make a very open display of them, and who sighed for a change; and the number of such was largely augmented by the alteration which James made in his creed \emdash from Calvinism to the doctrines of Arminius.\par The son and successor of James, Charles I, adopted towards the Nonconformists the policy of his predecessors. His haughty temper and despotic disposition speedily involved him in difficulties with his Parliament and people. In carrying into execution his designs against Puritanism, he found an able and zealous assistant in archbishop Laud, under whose arbitrary. administration the proceedings, of the Star Chamber and High Commission Court were characterized by great severity. Many Puritans sought for safety aid quiet in emigration; and the colony of Massachusetts Bay was founded by them in the New World. But a proclamation by the king put a stop to this self-banishment; and thus even the miserable consolation of expatriation was denied. Hundreds of Puritan clergymen were ejected from their cures on account of their opposition to the "Book of Sports," published in the previous reign. Calvinism was denounced by royal authority, and severe restrictions laid on the modes and times of preaching. But a change was approaching. In 1644 Laud was declared guilty of high-treason, and beheaded; and about five years after Charles shared the same fate. The Parliament abolished Episcopacy and everything in the Church that was opposed to LVALthe model of the Genevan Church. During the Protectorate, Presbytery continued to be the established religion. Independency, however, prevailed in the army, and was in high favor with Cromwell. Under his government the Quakers and Baptists flourished unmolested; and other sects, some of which held the wildest and most visionary tenets, came into existence. All were tolerated. Episcopacy only was proscribed; and the Nonconformists, in their hour of prosperity, forgetful of the lessons which adversity should have taught them, directed against, its adherents severities similar to those of which they themselves had been the objects. On Nov. 8,1645, an "ordinance" was passed by the Lords and Commons, who then claimed to be the Parliament of England, declaring that "the word 'presbyter,' that is to say 'elder,' and the word 'bishop,' do in the Scripture intend and signify one and the same function;" and that, "it being an usurpation on the part of bishops for them alone to ordain, henceforth ordination was to be given by presbyters," under certain rules respecting examination and trial which were laid down in the ordinance; and then it was enacted that all persons who shall be ordained presbyters according to this Directory "shall be forever reputed and taken, to all intents and purposes, for lawful and sufficiently authorized ministers of the Church of England" (Rushworth, Hist. Coll. 7:212). At this time the parochial clergy were rapidly and very generally driven from their parishes. Many were notoriously loyal to the crown and to Episcopacy, and had to flee for their lives because they would not take the covenant and the engagement; many were imprisoned (some with circumstances of great cruelty, as when twenty were kept under hatches in a ship on the Thames); and it is believed that not a few were "sent to plantations" to slavery, as the early Christians were sent to the mines. There were also "committees for inquiry into the scandalous immoralities of the clergy," and as the least taint of loyalty to ChLVAL urch or king, the use of the Prayer-book, or the refusal of the Directory was scandalous and immoral in the estimation of these committees, they turned out most of those clergy who were not got rid of by other means. The consequence of all these rigid measures was that nearly the whole of the episcopal clergy were deprived of their benefices during the early years of the great rebellion. A few temporized, a few were protected by influential laymen, and a few escaped notice; but the number of those who thus retained their places was very small, and it is probable that the popular estimate which put. down the number of the clergy ejected by the parliamentary party at 8000 to 10,000 was correct. As the episcopally ordained clergy were thus driven away from their churches, their parsonages, their tithes, and their glebes, the Presbyterians and Independents stepped into the vacated benefices, and were securely settled in them by the authority of the ordinance of Parliament which is quoted above. Thus it came to pass that between the years 1643 and 1660 most of the parishes throughout England and Wales received for their incumbents ministers who had not received episcopal ordination, the number of such amounting to about 10,000 at the time of the Restoration.\par The Restoration, in 1660, placed Charles II on the throne of his ancestors, and led to the restitution of the old system of Church government and worship. Attempts were made, indeed, by a comparatively small but yet noisy party, to prevent the reintroduction of the episcopal system in its integrity; but the great body of the laity being strongly exercised against this attempt, it was at once defeated. One of the first proceedings of the restored Parliament was to pass an act for the conforming and restoring of ministers (12 Car. II, c. 17), which enacted that "every minister of the Church of England who had been ejected by the authority of the rebellion Parliament should be restored to his benefice by Nov. 25, 1660; provided he had not justified tLVAL!he king's murder or declared against infant baptism." Under this act, many of the non-episcopal ministers had to retire from the livings into which they had been instated, that the old persecuted, poverty-stricken clergy, who had been turned out of them fifteen or sixteen years before, might be restored to their homes and their flocks. Some even of those who had been episcopally ordained had also to retire; and thus Richard Baxter had to give way for the return of the old and rightful vicar of Kidderminster, whose place he had not unworthil. held for half a generation. But half a generation of exile, war, persecution, and hardship had not left many of the old clergy to return to their parishes, and most of these were left occupied by non-episcopal incumbents until the Act of Uniformity came into force. This act was passed Aug. 24, 1662, and by it all who refused to observe the rites, as well as to subscribe to the doctrines of the Church of England, were excluded from its communion, and in consequence exposed to many disadvantages and to cruel sufferings. "This act of Parliament," says Blunt, who seeks to defend the Anglican side, "was no novelty, being the fourth Act of Uniformity which had been passed since the Reformation, and having its parallel in-several 'ordinances' of the Parliament which were passed during the rebellion. It is, moreover, absolutely necessary that, if the Church system was to be restored, some enactment should be made enforcing the first principle of the system \emdash that of episcopal ordination. But it was under the consideration of Parliament (especially of the House of Lords, which received a formal request to hasten it from the House of Commons) for several months; and it was so constructed as to deal considerately with the non-episcopal incumbents, as well as to deal justly with the principles of the Church. The former were not, therefore, 'ejected,' as has been so often represented; but opportunity was given to them of retaining the benefices which they held without aLVAL"ny difficulty if they were willing to conform to those principles which had always been maintained, and which could not. be given up, respecting episcopal ordination, the use of the Prayer-book, and decent loyalty to the crown. The conditions thus imposed were stated as follows in the Act of Uniformity. Every parson, vicar, or other minister whatsoever, who now hath and enjoyeth any ecclesiastical benefice or promotion within this realm of England, . shall openly and publicly before the congregation there assembled declare his unfeigned assent and consent to the use of all things in said book contained and prescribed. in these words, and no other: 'I, A B, do here declare my unfeigned assent and consent to all and everything contained and prescribed in and by the book entitled The Book of Common Prayer,' etc. Every such incumbent, or any one to be admitted to an incumbency thereafter, was required to subscribe the following declaration:\par 'I, A B, do declare that it is not lawful, on any pretense whatsoever, to take arms against the king; and that I do abhor that traitorous position of taking arms by his authority against his person. or against those who are commissioned by him; and that I will conform to the liturgy of the Church of England as it is now by law established. And I do declare that I do hold there lies no obligation upon me, or on any other person, from the oath commonly called "The Solemn League and Covenant," to endeavor any change 'or alteration of government, either in Church or State; and that the same was in itself an unlawful oath, and imposed upon the subjects of this realm against the known laws and liberties of this kingdom.'\par It was also provided that 'no person who is now incumbent and in possession of any parsonage, vicarage, or benefice, and who is not already in holy orders by episcopal ordination, or shall not before the feast of St. Bartholomew be ordained priest or deacon, according to the form of episcopal ordination, shall have, hold, or enjoy the said parsonagLVAL#e, vicarage, benefice, with cure or other ecclesiastical promotion, within this kingdom of England or the dominion of Wales;' but shall be utterly disabled and ipso facto deprived of the same; and all his ecclesiastical promotions: shall be void, as if he was naturally dead.' The Act of Uniformity, therefore, to secure the integrity of the Church system, on the one hand, and to secure the vested interests acquired by long possession on the part of the non-episcopal incumbents on the other, offered to the eight or nine thousand of the latter who still remained that, if they would be ordained, accept the Prayer-book, and renounce their engagement to destroy episcopal government, or to bear arms against the crown, the right to retain their benefices. The great majority accepted the terms that were thus offered, so legalizing their position, and qualifying themselves to carry out the system of the Church of England according to its long-established principles. The Nonconformists who did not accept these liberal terms offered by Parliament have been paraded before the world for two centuries as amounting in number to 2000. Contemporary writers of authority, as, for example, bishop Kennett, in his Register and Chronicle, the great storehouse of information respecting the years 1660-1662, often denied that the number was so large; but Calamy, in 1702, published an Abridgment of Baxter's Life and Times, the ninth chapter of which is occupied with biographical notices of some of the Nonconformists, and in which he gives the number of 2000 as correct. When this chapter was answered, in 1714, by Walker's folio volume on the Suffering of the Clergy, Calamy compiled a 'Continuation' of his former work, which was published in 1721 in two volumes, and in which he still maintained that 2000 Nonconformists were 'ejected' by the Act of Uniformity. A critical examination of Calamy's evidence shows, however, that he has much overstated his case, the number being not much more than one third of what he alleges it to be; aLVAL$nd as so much has been made of the matter by dissenting writers, it is worth while to show what is the real conclusion furnished by his evidence. The list of ejected ministers printed by Calamy may be distributed under the seven following heads:\par (1)\tab Those who were actually dead before the time of ejection arrived;\par (2)\tab those who yielded up their places to the dispossessed episcopal incumbents;\par (3)\tab curates and lecturers, whose appointments were not benefices, and who were not, therefore, 'ejected' from any by the act;\par (4)\tab cases, in which the list sets down two incumbents for the same benefice;\par (5)\tab cases in which bishops' registers show that other men than those named in the list were in possession;\par (6)\tab those who on Calamy's own showing had no benefices to be lost, but whom he includes among those ejected from benefices;\par (7)\tab those who may have been deprived by the operation of the Act of Uniformity.\par By the help of Newcourt's Repertorium of the diocese of London, those ministers whom Calamy names as ejected from benefices in that diocese may be distributed under these seven heads as follows:\par The number of those who it is possible may have been ejected is thus, taking the general average, only 43.3 per cent. of the number given by Calamy for the diocese of London. If this proportion be taken as regards the alleged number ejected throughout England and Wales, that number will thus be reduced from 2000 to 867. It seems improbable, therefore, that the number of Nonconformist ministers who were ipso facto deprived of their parishes on St. Bartholomew's day was much or any over 800; and as contemporaries allege that some of these were men of property; that some made good marriages; that some returned to the trades which they had left for the pulpit; and that great kindness was shown to those who were poor by the bishops and nobility (Kennett's Register, p. 888, 919), it may be concluded that much exaggeration has been used by those who havLVAL%e turned the event to the, discredit of the Church. Among those who thus refused to accept the terms offered by the Act of Uniformity, there was also a large number who continued to attend the ministration of the Church, and whom Baxter calls 'Episcopal Nonconformists.' 'These,' he says, 'are for true parish churches and ministers reformed, without swearing, promising, declaring, or subscribing to any but sure, clear, necessary things; desiring that Scripture may be their canons; taking the capable in each parish for the communicants and Church, and the rest for hearers and catechized persons; desiring that the magistrate will be judge as to whom he will maintain, approve, and tolerate; and the ordainer judge of whom he will ordain; and the people be free consenters, to whose pastoral care they will trust their' souls, desiring that every presbyter may be an overseer over his flock, and every Church that hath many elders have one incumbent, president, for unity and order; and that goodly diocesans may (without the sword or force) have the oversight of many ministers and churches, and all these be confederate and under one government of a Christian king, but under no foreign jurisdiction, though in as much concord as possible with all the Christian world. And they would have the keys of excommunication taken out of the hands of laymen (chancellors or lay brethren), and the diocesan to judge in the synods of the presbyters in cases above parochial power' (Life and Times, App. p. 71, ed. 1696). These were probably a large class among the laity for some time after the Restoration" (Dict. Hist. Theol. s.v.). But whatever difference of opinion may exist as to the real number of those who were visited with suffering by the Act of Uniformity, there is certainly no ground for the indifference with, which some historians have deigned to treat those men in supposing that their consciences were more tender than they need be, for it must be remembered they were men of as extensive learning, great abilities, and piLVAL&ous conduct, as ever appeared. Mr. Locke, if his opinion have any weight, calls them "worthy, learned, pious, orthodox divines, who did not throw themselves out of service, but were forcibly ejected." Mr. Bogue thus draws their character: "As to their public ministration," he says, "they were orthodox, experimental, serious, affectionate, regular, faithful, able, and popular preachers. As to their moral qualities, they were devout and holy; faithful to Christ and the souls of men; wise and prudent; of great liberality and kindness; and strenuous advocates for liberty, civil and religious. As to their intellectual qualities, they were learned. eminent, and laborious." These men were driven from their homes, from the society of their friends, and exposed to the greatest difficulties. Had the government of the day been content with requiring subscription from those who desired to remain as ministers of the establishment, without proceeding to the passing of obnoxious, persecuting, and iniquitous acts against those whose consciences forbade their compliance with the requirements of the Act of Uniformity, dissent would not, in all probability, have taken such deep root in the minds of the people, nor would it have attained that growth to which it subsequently reached. The burdens of Nonconformists were very greatly increased by another enactment, under the same reign, entitled the "Conventicle Act," whereby they were prohibited from meeting for any exercise of religion (above five in number) in any other manner than allowed by the liturgy or practice of the Church of England. For the first offense the penalty was three months' imprisonment, or a fine of \'a35; for the second offense, six months' imprisonment, or \'a310; and for the third offense, banishment to some of the American plantations for seven years, or \'a3100; and in case they returned; death penalty without benefit of clergy. By virtue of this act the jails were quickly filled with dissenting Protestants, and the trade of an informer was very gLVAL'ainful. So great was the severity of these times, says Neale, that they were afraid to pray in their families if above four of their acquaintance, who came only to visit them, were present; some families scrupled asking a blessing on their meat if \emdash five strangers were at table. But this was not all. In 1665 an act was brought into the House to banish them from their friends, commonly called the "Oxford Five-Mile Act," by which all dissenting ministers, on the penalty of \'a340, who would not take an oath (that it was not lawful, upon any pretense whatever, to take arms against the king, etc.), were prohibited from coming within five miles of any city, town corporate, or borough, or any place where they had exercised their ministry, and from teaching any school. Some few took the oath; others could not, and consequently suffered the penalty. Yet even this was not all. Two more enactments under this sovereignty were made, the so-called Corporation. and Test Act, the last named of which was claimed to have been passed "for preventing dangers which may happen from popish recusants." But as it enacted that "all in place or office, civil or military, under the crown, or in receipt of any salary by patent or grant, shall take the oaths of supremacy and allegiance, and shall receive the sacrament of the Lord's Supper within three months after admittance," it virtually directed itself with equal severity against Protestant dissenters, for it excluded from offices of trust in the state those who refused to receive the eucharist according to the rubric of the Church of England. After this time dissent continued in a very depressed state, and had to struggle with various fortunes. In 1673 "the mouths of the High-Church pulpiters were encouraged to open as loud as possible. One in his sermon before the House of Commons told them that the Nonconformists ought not to be tolerated, but to be cured by vengeance. He urged them to set fire to the fagot, and to teach them by scourges or scorpions, and open their LVAL(eyes with gall."' Such were the dreadful consequences of this intolerant spirit, that it is supposed near 8000 died in prison in the reign of Charles II. It is said that Mr. Jeremiah White had carefully collected a list of those who had suffered between Charles II and the Revolution, which amounted to 60,000. The same persecutions were carried on in Scotland; and there, as well as in England, many, to avoid molestation, fled from their country. But, notwithstanding all these dreadful and furious attacks upon the dissenters, they were not extirpated. Their very persecution was in their favor. The infamous character of their informers and oppressors; their own, piety, zeal, and fortitude, no doubt, had influence on considerate minds; and, indeed, they had additions from the Established Church, which several clergymen in this reign deserted as a persecuting Church.\par Anglican divines appear as apologetic in behalf of king Charles and his extravagant measures; and, lest we stand accused of representing only the side of the Nonconformists, we here insert the apologies offered by one of the ablest Anglican historians, the Rev. John Henry Blunt, who says: "The statutes passed by Charles It against nonconformity proceed on two principles, which used to be thought undeniable, viz., that the Church and the commonwealth are co-extensive, the same body under its two aspects; and that the government of such a Christian state has the duty of training its subjects in Christian truth and religious practice. Rulers, it was thought, were bound to enforce the observance of Church laws as well as the laws of a secular political economy. The former of these was, at the end of the 16 th century, no such Utopian notion as it now appears to be. For the first ten years of Elizabeth's reign Papists frequented the English service, and it might have been not unreasonably hoped that such a reformation was possible as would retain the whole nation in the Established Church. So long as this. theory of the identity of the Church LVAL)and nation appeared not impossible to realize (and there is no wonder that patriotic statesmen were slow to relinquish it), it followed inevitably that temporal penalties were added to spiritual censures, that breaches of Church bounds were met by strict enactments. Rebellion against the Church was also rebellion against the State; and, in point, of fact, secession from the Church was accompanied by insurrection against the government. The conspiracy of Hacket and Coppinger was just. before the passing of the act of 1593. Presbyteries and independent congregations would lead, it was well known, to the overthrow of temporal as well as spiritual thrones. Rebellion against the sovereign began with disobedience in religion, and disobedience in religion was dealt with according to its results. The hundred and thirty years from Elizabeth's accession to the Revolution are the attempt to realize the high ideal of the true union and coincidence of Church and State."\par During the reign of king James the Nonconformists for a while at least enjoyed more or less liberty. He, suddenly changing his course, though simply for the purpose of restoring popery, granted universal toleration, and preferred Nonconformists to places of trust and profit. Toleration truly came only in the reign of king William III, when the so-called "Toleration Act" was passed (in 1689), and thus was granted immunity to all Protestant dissenters, except Socinians, from the penal laws to which they had been subjected by the Stuart dynasty. The benefits conferred by this measure were indeed subsequently much abridged by the "Occasional Communion Bill," which excluded from civil offices those Nonconformists who, by communion at the altars of the Church, were by the provisions of the Test Act qualified to hold them, and by the "Schism Bill," which restricted the work of education to certificated churchmen. But after the accession of George I, he being fully satisfied that these hardships were brought upon the dissenters for their steady adherLVAL*ence to the Protestant succession in his illustrious house, against a Tory and Jacobite ministry, who were paving the way for a popish pretender, procured the repeal of them in the fifth year of his reign, and since then, by the removal of the "Test Act," and by the passing of the acts relating to registration and marriage, dissenters have been allowed the peaceful enjoyment of the rights of conscience.\par Though religious liberty now prevails in Britain. it must be confessed that the great subject of nonconformity remains still to be agitated, and the great questions which it has provoked cannot be considered as yet finally settled. The Puritans, under the Tudors, became Nonconformists under the Stuarts, and Dissenters under the family of Hanover. They have been men of the same principles substantially throughout. In maintaining the rights of conscience, they have contributed more than any other class of persons to set limits to the power of the crown, to define the rights of the subjects, and to secure the liberties of Britain. They have wrested a rod of iron from the hand of despotism, and substituted in its place a scepter of righteousness and mercy. They have converted the divine right of kings into the principles of a constitutional government, in which the privileges of the subject are secured by the same charter which guards the throne. The history of the principles of such a body ought not, therefore, to be regarded as unimportant by any friends of British freedom. The Nonconformist controversy contributed greatly to ascertain the distinct provinces of divine and human legislation; to establish the paramount and exclusive authority of God, and of the revelation of his will, over the conscience of man; and to define the undoubted claims of civil government to the obedience of its subjects in all matters purely civil. To the same controversy we are indebted for the correct and scriptural sentiments which are now extensively entertained respecting the unsecular nature of the kingdom of Christ.LVAL+ The intermixture of heavenly and earthly things does indeed still prevail, and its pernicious tendency is yet imperfectly estimated by many; but considerable progress has been made towards the full discovery of the entire spirituality of the Messiah's kingdom. Its independence of secular support and defense; its resources both of propagation and maintenance; its uncongeniality with the principles, spirit, and practice of earth-born men, are now much more generally admitted than they once were. In fact, the ablest defenders of ecclesiastico-civil establishments have now entirely abandoned the doctrine of divine right, and boldly avow that they are no part of Christianity, but only a human expedient for its propagation.\par A conference of the leading Nonconformists of England was held in London Feb. 15, 1876, for the purpose of expressing their views upon several questions which are to come before the present Parliament, namely, the Burials Bill, the legality of clerical fellowships, and the administration of the Endowed Schools Act. Mr. Osborne Morgan stated that this was the seventh time he had brought a bill for amending the burial acts before Parliament. He advocates giving the English dissenting minister full privilege to officiate at funerals in the parish churchyards, just as the Episcopal ministers in Scotland, who are Dissenters in that country, are allowed to read their service in the Presbyterian graveyards. The extent of the grievance is seen in the fact that there are 13,000 parishes in England where the only graveyard is that attached to the Church of England parish, and under the control of the parochial clergyman. In none of these can any one be buried unless the English Church service is read at the grave. The Hon. Lyulph Stanley, in an address upon clerical fellowships; said that there were 171 such fellowships in the University of Cambridge, and 108 at Oxford. Resolutions in support of the Nonconformist positions upon all these subjects were passed. In the evening a large public meLVAL,eting, presided over by Mr. McArthur, M.P., was held at Exeter Hall. There is evidently a strong move in England for separation of Church and State.\par There is a society in England called "Central Bartholomew," which is busy with a defense of nonconformity, and aims to bring about the final and full separation of Church and State in Great Britain. In 1866 it brought out a Bicentenary volume, which includes, besides the public documents bearing on the ejection of "the Two Thousand," an "Introduction" to the documents, written by Mr. Peter Bayne, and entitled Puritanism, its Character and History. Then we have Mr. Binney's two Bicentenary sermons, lectures by the Rev. Thos. Adkins, of Southampton, and the Rev. R. A. Redford, of Hull; the Canadian Bicentenary Papers, No. 1, History of Nonconformity in England in 1662, by Rev. W. F. Clarke; and Reasons for Nonconformity in Canada in 1862, by Rev. F. H. Marling; a sermon by the Rev. W. Kirkus, preached on St. Bartholomew's day, on The Nature and some of the Probable Consequences of Perfect Religious. Liberty; The Church of Christ in England, by the Rev. C. Stover. The Society has also published the following:\par (1), Tract Series \emdash The First Protest. or the Father of English Nonconformity, by Edward Underhill, Esq.; The Book of Sports, by the Rev. R. Halley, D.D.; The Star Chamber and High Commission, by Peter Bayne, Esq., A.M.; The Ejection of the Episcopalians, by the Rev. J. G. Miall; The Savoy Conference, by the Rev. Dr. M'Crie; The Act of Uniformity and the Subsidiary Acts, by Peter. Bayne, Esq., A.M.; The Farewell Sunday, by Rev. Charles Stanford; The effects of the Ejectment, by Rev. A. Mackennal, B.A.; On the Prayer-book, by Rev. J.H. Millard, B.A.; On Clerical Subscription, by Rev. W. Robinson; The Act of Toleration, by the Rev. Dr. Lorimer.\par (2), Lecture Series \emdash The Story of the Ejectment, a lecture by the Rev. Thomas M'Crie, D.D.; Fidelity to' Conscience, a lecture by the Rev. A. M'Laren, B.A.; Nonconformity in 1662 and iLVALn 1862, a lecture by the Rev. R. W. Dale, M.A.; The Design of the Act of Uniformity, a lecture by the Rev. Robert Halley, D.D. See also Bogue, Charge at Mr. Knight's Ordination; Neale, History of the Puritans; De Laune, Plea for the Nonconformists; Palmer, Nonconformist's Mem.; Price, Hist. of Nonconformity;. Conder, Fletcher, and Dobson, On Nonconformity; Martin, Letters on Nonconformity; Dr. Calamy, Life of Baxter; Pierce, Vindication of the Dissenters; Bogue and Bennet, Hist. of the Dissenters, 1:78; Bickersteth, Christian Student, p. 252; Christianity in Great Britain (Lond. and N. Y. 1874); Stoughton, Eccles. Hist. of England (Church of the Restoration), vol. i and ii; Skeats, Hist. of the Free Churches of England, p. 75-97; Brit. Qu. Rev. April, 1871, art. iii; Oct. 1873, art. vii; Contemp. Rev. Jan. 1872, art. ii.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par \fs29\par } LVAL [.{\rtf1\ansi\ansicpg1252\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;\red0\green0\blue255;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 OBER-AMMERGAU\par \par Ober-Ammergau\par \par is a village of Upper Bavaria, in the valley of the Ammer, 46 miles S.W. of Munich, containing a population of about 1100, chiefly engaged in carving on wood. The place is celebrated for the decennial performance on twelve consecutive Sundays in the summer season of a play representing the passion and death of Christ, in which three hundred and fifty actors are employed, besides eighty members of the orchestra and chorus, all selected from the villagers, some of whom exhibit great dramatic power and genius. The performances generally last from 8 A.M. to 4 P.M. A considerable portion of the space allotted to the theater is uncovered. There is room for from 5000 to 6000 spectators, but the attendance is generally much larger, including visitors from foreign countries. The performance in 1870 was interrupted by the Franco-German war, but was resumed in 1871. It is the only important passion or miracle play which continues to be performed. It originated in a vow taken by the population in 1634 to perform it every ten years in the event of their escaping from the plague which then prevailed. In the summer of 1875 they inaugurated another drama called the "School of the Cross." It is a series of scenes taken from Old-Testament history, in the original, as many as seventeen scenes being given. The good people of Ammergau will discover, however, that the performing of the passion play once in ten years in fulfillment of a religious vow, and carrying on a dramatic performance continually in response to the popular interest, will soon prove to be two very different things. The\par consecration of the simple-minded but talented actors gave a charm to the old performance which will soon be lost in the more worldly and unattractive attempt for pecuniary success. SeLVAL/e MYSTERIES.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \fs28\par \pard\sb100\sa100\cf0\b Oberammergau\b0 is a town in {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/Bavaria"}}{\fldrslt{\cf2\ul Bavaria}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs28 in {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/Germany"}}{\fldrslt{\cf2\ul Germany}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs28 , famous for its production of a {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/Passion_play"}}{\fldrslt{\cf2\ul passion play}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs28 . The play was first performed in 1634 and is the result of a vow made by the inhabitants of the village that if God spared them from the effects of the {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/Bubonic_plague"}}{\fldrslt{\cf2\ul bubonic plague}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs28 then sweeping the region they would perform a passion play every ten years. The play is now performed in years ending with a zero, except 1984 which was the 350th anniversary, and involves over 2000 performers, all residents of the village. See {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/Oberammergau_Passion_Play"}}{\fldrslt{\cf2\ul Oberammergau Passion Play}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs28 .\par The village is also known as the home of a long tradition of woodcarving. The streets of central Oberammergau are home to dozens of woodcarver shops, with pieces ranging from religious subjects, to toys, to humoristic portraits.\par Oberammergau is also famous for its "L\'fcftlmalerei," or frescoes, of traditional Bavarian themes, fairy tales, or religious scenes found on many homes and buildings. L\'fcftlmalerei is common {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/Upper_Bavaria"}}{\fldrslt{\cf2\ul Upper Bavaria}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs28 and its name may be derived from an Oberammergau house called \i Zum L\'fcftl\i0 , which was the home of facade painter Franz Seraph Zwinck (1748\endash 1792).\par The {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/NATO"}}{\fldrslt{\cf2\ul NATO}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs28 School, NATO's key training facility on LVAL0the operational level, has been located in Oberammergau since 1953.\par \pard\cf1 WIKIPEDIA\par \fs29\par OBER-AMMERGAU\par Ober-Ammergau\par is a village of Upper Bavaria, in the valley of the Ammer, 46 miles S.W. of Munich, containing a population of about 1100, chiefly engaged in carving on wood. The place is celebrated for the decennial performance on twelve consecutive Sundays in the summer season of a play representing the passion and death of Christ, in which three hundred and fifty actors are employed, besides eighty members of the orchestra and chorus, all selected from the villagers, some of whom exhibit great dramatic power and genius. The performances generally last from 8 A.M. to 4 P.M. A considerable portion of the space allotted to the theater is uncovered. There is room for from 5000 to 6000 spectators, but the attendance is generally much larger, including visitors from foreign countries. The performance in 1870 was interrupted by the Franco-German war, but was resumed in 1871. It is the only important passion or miracle play which continues to be performed. It originated in a vow taken by the population in 1634 to perform it every ten years in the event of their escaping from the plague which then prevailed. In the summer of 1875 they inaugurated another drama called the "School of the Cross." It is a series of scenes taken from Old-Testament history, in the original, as many as seventeen scenes being given. The good people of Ammergau will discover, however, that the performing of the passion play once in ten years in fulfillment of a religious vow, and carrying on a dramatic performance continually in response to the popular interest, will soon prove to be two very different things. The consecration of the simple-minded but talented actors gave a charm to the old performance which will soon be lost in the more worldly and unattractive attempt for pecuniary success. See MYSTERIES.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 200lLVAL|5, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par } LVAL [2{\rtf1\ansi\ansicpg1252\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fcharset0 Times New Roman;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue255;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\keepn\sb100\sa100\lang1033\b\f0\fs36 Origins\par \pard\sb100\sa100\b0\fs24 The town vowed that if {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/God"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul God}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 were to spare them from the effects of the {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/Bubonic_plague"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul bubonic plague}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 ravaging the region, they would perform a play every ten years depicting the life and death of {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/Jesus"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Jesus}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 . The {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/Death_rate"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul death rate}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 among adults rose from one in October 1632 to twenty in the month of March 1633. The adult death rate slowly subsided to one in the month of July 1633. The villagers believed they were spared after they kept their part of the vow when the play was first performed in 1634. The most recent performance was in 2000.\par The play, now performed repeatedly over the course of five months, during the first year of each decade, involves over 2,000 performers, musicians, and stage technicians, all of whom are residents of the village. The play comprises spoken dramatic text, musical and choral accompaniment and \i tableaux vivants\i0 . The \i tableaux vivants\i0 are scenes from the {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/Old_Testament"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Old Testament}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 depicted for the audience by motionless actors accompanied by verbal description. These scenes are the basis for the typology, the relationship between the Old and {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/New_Testament"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul New Testaments}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 , of the play. They include a scene of {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/King_Ahasuerus"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul King AhasuerusLVAL3}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 rejecting {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/Vashti"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Vashti}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 in favor of {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/Esther"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Esther}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 , the brothers selling {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/Joseph_%28dreamer%29"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Joseph}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 into slavery in {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/Egypt"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Egypt}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 , and {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/Moses"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Moses}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 raising up the {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/Bronze"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul bronze}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/Serpent_%28symbolism%29"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul serpent}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 in the wilderness. Each scene precedes that section of the play that is considered to be prefigured by the scene. The three \i tableaux\i0 mentioned are presented to the audience as prefiguring Christianity {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/Supersessionism"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul superseding}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 Judaism, {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/Judas_Iscariot"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Judas}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 selling information on the location of Jesus, and the {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/Crucifixion"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul crucifixion}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 .\par It can be said that the evolution of the {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/Passion_Play"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Passion Play}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 was about the same as that of the {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/Easter_Play"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Easter Play}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 , originating in the ritual of the Latin Church, which prescribes, among other things, that the Gospel on {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/Good_Friday"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Good Friday}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 should be sung in parts divided among various persons.\par The Oberammergau play has a running time of approximately seven {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/Hour"}}{\fldrslLVAL4t{\cf1\ul hours}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 . A meal is served during the intermission of the play. Audiences come from all over the world, often on package tours, the first instituted in 1870. Admission fees were first charged in 1790. Since 1930, the number of visitors has ranged from 420,000 to 530,000. Most tickets are sold as part of a package with one or two nights' accommodation.\par There were at least two years in which the scheduled performance did not take place. In 1770, Oberammergau was informed that all passion plays in {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/Bavaria"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Bavaria}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 had been banned by order of the Ecclesiastical Council of the Elector, Maximillian Joseph at the behest of the {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Roman Catholic Church}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 . In 1780, the play was retitled \i The Old and New Testament\i0 . The new Elector, Karl Theodore, having been assured that the play was "purged of all objectionable and unseemly matter" approved the performance of the play. By 1830, the Catholic Church succeeded in halting the performance of all other passion plays in Bavaria. Only Oberammergau remained. Anton Lang played, for three times, the Christ in the passion play in the 1920's and 30's.\par \par \pard\keepn\sb100\sa100\b\fs36 [{\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/w/index.php?title=Oberammergau_Passion_Play&action=edit&section=2"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul edit}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs36 ] Alleged Antisemitism\par \pard\sb100\sa100\b0\fs24 Historic versions of the play were undeniably {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/Anti-Semitism" \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\l "Passion_plays"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul anti-Semitic}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 in character, reflecting a historical anti-Semitism in the Catholic Church. {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/Adolf_Hitler"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Adolf Hitler}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 indicated approval of these anti-Semitic elements in the OberammergaLVAL5u Passion Play.\par In response to changing mores, and historical gestures on the part of the Holy See (particularly the {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/Second_Vatican_Council"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Second Vatican Council}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 , as expressed in {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/Nostra_Aetate"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Nostra Aetate}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 no. 4, {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/October_28"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul October 28}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 , {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/1965"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul 1965}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 : \ldblquote the Jews should not be presented as rejected or accursed by God as if this followed from Sacred Scripture\rdblquote ), the most recent performances have been edited drastically to reduce this aspect. The changes included changing some of the high priests' names from Old Testament names to newer New Testament era names such as Demetrios, Alexander, or Bacchides; the role of the Temple traders has been reduced; the character "Rabbi" has been eliminated and his lines given to another character; Jesus has been addressed as Rabbi Yeshua; Jesus speaks fragments of Hebrew in the play; Jews have been shown disputing with others about Judaism, not just about Jesus; Pilate has been made to appear more tyrannical and some revision of lines was done to reflect that; Jesus supporters have been added to the screaming crowd outside Pilate's palace; removing the line "His blood is upon us and also upon our children's children" (from {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/Matthew_27:25"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Matthew 27:25}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 ), and "{\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/Ecce_homo"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Ecce homo}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 " (Behold the man); {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/Saint_Peter"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Peter}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 , when questioned by Nathaniel regarding abandoning {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/Judaism"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Judaism}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 replies, "No! We don't want that! Far be it from LVAL"us to abandon {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/Moses"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Moses}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 and his law"; and at the {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/Last_Supper"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Last Supper}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 Jesus recites the blessing over the wine in {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/Hebrew_language"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Hebrew}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 .\par Modifications to the text of the play and its \i tableaux vivants\i0 continue to be made each decade. These modifications include how the play presents the charge of {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/Deicide"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul deicide}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 , collective guilt, {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/Supersessionism"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul supersessionism}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 and typology, the relationship between the books of the {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/Bible"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Bible}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 that preceded {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/Jesus"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Jesus}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 in time and those that followed. The two main goals of these modifications are to bring the play in line with Catholic doctrine after the {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "/wiki/Second_Vatican_Council"}}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Second Vatican Council}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 and to reduce or eliminate anti-semitic content.\par \pard\cf2\f1\fs29 WIKIPEDIA\par \par } LVAL [7{\rtf1\ansi\ansicpg1252\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Times New Roman;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f2\fswiss\fprq2\fcharset0 Tahoma;}{\f3\fswiss\fprq2\fcharset0 Trebuchet MS;}{\f4\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue255;\red0\green0\blue0;\red0\green64\blue102;\red10\green79\blue121;\red0\green128\blue0;} {\stylesheet{ Normal;}{\s1 heading 1;}{\s2 heading 2;}{\s3 heading 3;}{\s4 heading 4;}{\s5 heading 5;}} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\s1\sb100\sa100\qc\lang1033\kerning36\b\f0\fs48 Juan de Padilla\par \pard\sb100\sa100\kerning0\b0\fs24 Friar Minor, protomartyr of the United States of America, member of the Andalusian province, came to Mexico probably in 1528, joining the province of the Holy Gospel. During 1529-1531 he, with an unnamed friar, accompanied Nu\'f1o de Guzm\'e1n to Nueva Galicia and Culiac\'e1n, and prevented the oppression of the natives while as military chaplain. From 1531 to 1540 he made missionary tours among the Indians of Tlamatzol\'e1n, Tuchp\'e1n, Tzapotitl\'e1n, Totlam\'e1n, Amula, Caul\'e1n, Xicotl\'e1n, Avalos or Zaol\'e1n, Amacuec\'e1n, Atoyac, Tzacoalco, and Colima. He founded the convent of Tzapotl\'e1n, becoming its first superior, and erected another at Tuchp\'e1n, making it the headquarters for the missionary friars. He established the monastery of Tulantcingo, governing it until 1540, when he resigned to follow Fr. Marcos de Niza, the discoverer of Arizona and New Mexico, with Francisco V\'e1squez de Coranado, on the memorable march to the fabled Seven Cities, and thus reached the Upper Rio Grande near the present Bernalillo about the end of 1540. He also accompanied {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04379e.htm" }}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Coronado}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 in his search to Quivira, probably as far as central Kansas. When the disappointed general and his army in 1542 abandoned New Mexico, Fr. De Padilla, Fr. Juan de la Cruz, Brother Luis de Ubeda or Escalona, resoLVAL8lved to stay behind to evangelize the Indians. A Portugese soldier, Andres da Campo, two Mexican tertiaries, Lucas and Sebastin, two other Mexican Indians, and a half-breed boy also remained with the zealous friars. \par After working with success among the T\'edguez on the Rio Grande for some time, Fr. De Padilla's zeal urged him to afford other tribes an opportunity of knowing and serving Christ. Accompanied by Da Campo, Lucas, Sebastian, and the two Mexican Indians, he set out for the north-east. When the little party reached the plains, they encountered a band of savages, who attacked them and slew Fr. De Padilla as he calmly knelt in prayer. The savages threw the body into a pit. The date and locality of his martyrdom are uncertain, Fr. Vetancurt in his Menologio assigning 30 November, 1544. Some believe he perished in eastern {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04129a.htm" }}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Colorado}}}\cf0\ulnone\f0\fs24 or western Kansas, but this is conjecture. The story believed in New Mexico, that his body was discovered by Pueblo Indians, brought to Isleta, interred beneath the sanctuary of the church, and that it rises and falls at stated periods is a myth. The remains of the Franciscan buried there are doubtless those of Fr. Juan Jos\'e9 de Padilla, who died a peaceful death there two centuries later. Fr. De la Cruz and Brother de Ubeda were likewise put to death at the instigation of Indian sorcerers at the missions on the Rio Grande. \par \pard\sb100\sa100\qj\cf2\b PADILLA, JUAN DE (?-1544). Fray Juan de Padilla came to the New World from his native Andalucia in Spain, where he had been a soldier before joining the {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "http://www.rra.dst.tx.us/c_t/History1/FRANCISCANS.cfm" }}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Franciscan}}}\cf2\ulnone\f0\fs24 order. The exact date of his arrival is not known, but his signature did appear on a letter from the New World dated October 19, 1529. He was among the friars selected to sail from Tehuantepec to the Orient aLVAL9s part of an expedition organized by Hernando Cort\'e9s, but the ships proved unseaworthy. Subsequently, Padilla labored among the Indians at Ponzitl\'e1n and Tuchp\'e1n. Some sources record him as being at Matatlan and Hueytlapa missions at Tulancingo and at Zapotl\'e1n in Jalisco in 1531-32. Padilla was one of the two ordained priests chosen to accompany Fray Marcos de Niza on the {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "http://www.rra.dst.tx.us/c_t/History1/CORONADO%20EXPEDITION.cfm" }}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Coronado expedition}}}\cf2\ulnone\f0\fs24 in 1540. After Coronado's capture of C\'edbola (or H\'e1wikuh), the westernmost Zu\'f1i pueblo, in July, Padilla, in the company of Pedro de Tovar, visited the Moqui (Hopi) villages in Arizona. In August he accompanied the advance guard under Capt. Hernando de Alvarado to the Cicuye (Pecos) and Taos pueblos and the {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "http://www.rra.dst.tx.us/bi/mammal/BUFFALO.cfm" }}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul buffalo}}}\cf2\ulnone\f0\fs24 plains beyond. Padilla was among the select party that journeyed in 1541 with {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "http://www.rra.dst.tx.us/c_t/people/CORONADO.cfm" }}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Francisco V\'e1zquez de Coronado}}}\cf2\ulnone\f0\fs24 to Quivira, the Wichita village in present Kansas. Among other things, he reportedly conducted a service of thanksgiving in {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "http://www.rra.dst.tx.us/c_t/history/Land/PALO%20DURO%20CANYON.cfm" }}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Palo Duro Canyon}}}\cf2\ulnone\f0\fs24 . When the disillusioned Coronado declared his intention to return to New Spain in the spring of 1542, Padilla chose to remain in New Mexico and return to Quivira to continue missionary efforts among the plains tribes. With him were two lay brothers, Luis de Escalona and Juan de la Cruz, who worked in the New Mexico pueblos and reportedly were martyred. Three blacks, one of whom was accompanied by his family; a Portuguese soldier named Andr\'e9s do Campo; and several Indian converts from the monastery of Zapotl\'e1n likewise LVAL:volunteered to remain with Padilla. Leaving Escalona at Cicuye, Padilla and his companions set out for the buffalo plains. Some accounts claim that they followed the {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "http://www.rra.dst.tx.us/c_t/Rivers/CANADIAN%20RIVER.cfm" }}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Canadian River}}}\cf2\ulnone\f0\fs24 as far as the area of present {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "http://www.rra.dst.tx.us/c_t/history/hutchiso/other.cfm" }}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Hutchinson}}}\cf2\ulnone\f0\fs24 and {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "http://www.rra.dst.tx.us/c_t/history/roberts/default1.cfm" }}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Roberts}}}\cf2\ulnone\f0\fs24 counties before turning north to Quivira, where they were warmly received by the natives. After working in the area about two years, Padilla, do Campo, and two Tarascan mission Indians named Lucas and Sebasti\'e1n sought to expand their ministry to neighboring tribes in unexplored territory. About November 30, 1544, at a little more than a day's journey from their home base, they were suddenly set upon by a war party of enemy tribesmen. Urging his companions to flee, the account goes, the friar knelt and deliberately sacrificed himself to "the arrows of those barbarous Indians, who threw him into a pit, covering his body with innumerable stones." Do Campo and the two Tarascans were allegedly held captive by the Indians, but later escaped. Afterwards they made their way south to P\'e1nuco, Mexico, and reported the incident. The actual location of Padilla's death is disputed, as are certain details surrounding the episode, such as who was really with him. However, he had been revered by Texans as the first Christian martyr of Texas, and possibly of the United States. In 1936 a monument commemorating the martyrdom of Juan de Padilla was erected jointly by the state of Texas and the Knights of Columbus in {\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "http://www.rra.dst.tx.us/c_t/history/potter/AMARILLO.cfm" }}{\fldrslt{\cf1\ul Amarillo}}}\cf2\ulnone\f0\fs24 's Ellwood Park. \par BIBLIOGRAPHY: Herbert EugeLVAL;ne Bolton, \i Coronado: Knight of Pueblos and Plains\i0 (New York: Whittlesey; Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1949). Carlos E. Casta\'f1eda, \i Our Catholic Heritage in Texas\i0 (7 vols., Austin: Von Boeckmann-Jones, 1936-58; rpt., New York: Arno, 1976). Angelico Ch\'e1vez, \i Coronado's Friars\i0 (Washington: Academy of American Franciscan History, 1968). Dianna Everett, ed., \i Coronado and the Myth of Quivira\i0 (Canyon, Texas: Panhandle-Plains Historical Society, 1985). Charles W. Hackett, ed., \i Pichardo's Treatise on the Limits of Louisiana and Texas\i0 (4 vols., Austin: University of Texas Press, 1931-46). George P. Hammond and Agapito Rey, eds. and trans., \i Narratives of the Coronado Expedition, 1540-1542\i0 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1940). Frederick Webb Hodge and Theodore H. Lewis, eds., \i Spanish Explorers in the Southern United States, 1528-1543\i0 (New York: Scribner, 1907; rpt., Austin: Texas State Historical Association, 1984). Harold Schoen, comp., \i Monuments Erected by the State of Texas to Commemorate the Centenary of Texas Independence\i0 (Austin: Commission of Control for Texas Centennial Celebrations, 1938). \par \i H. Allen Anderson\i0\par \pard\cf0\fs20 Recommended citation:\par \pard\li720 "PADILLA, JUAN DE." The Handbook of Texas Online. <{\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK "http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/articles/view/PP/fpa7.html"}}{\fldrslt{\ul\cf1 http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/articles/view/PP/fpa7.html}}}\f0\fs20 > \par \pard\fs24 In 1540 Francisco Vasquez de Coronado marched north from\line Mexico with 300 Spaniards in search of the "Seven Golden\line Cities of Cibola." \~With them were several priests, including\line Juan de Padilla, a Franciscan friar. When the golden cities\line proved to be only adobe pueblos the Spaniards went on to ex-\line plore the Southwest and Padilla was among those who dis-\line covered the Grand Canyon. \~Later he marched with a party\line of 30 picked horsemen to the landLVAL< of Quivira in Kansas. \~ For\line 25 days in the summer of 1541 Coronado remained among the\line grass-hut villages of the Quiviran Indians, then returned to\line New Mexico. \~ Padilla went with him, but the following year\line came back as a missionary. \~Here he was later killed by\line the Indians, the first Christian martyr in what is now the \line United States. \~ Although the exact place of his death is un-\line known there is a monument to Padilla in City Park in\line Herington. \par \pard\s5\sb240\sa60\qc\i\fs26 Erected by Kansas Historical Society and State Highway Commission\par \pard\b0\i0\fs24 b. c. 1500,, Andalusia, Spain d. 1542, near modern Herington, Kan., U.S. first Christian missionary martyred within the territory of the present United States. After serving as a soldier, Padilla joined the Franciscans in Andalusia. He went to Spanish Mexico in 1528 and in the following year accompanied an expedition to Nueva Galicia (northwestern Mexico). There he spent most of his remaining years, except for a trip in 1533 to Tehuantepec, in southern Mexico, with the Spanish conqueror Hern\'e1n Cort\'e9s. He founded the first Franciscan friaries at Zapotl\'e1n, Tamazula, and Tulantizingo, where he became abbot. In 1540-41 he accompanied the Spanish explorer Francisco V\'e1zquez de Coronado in his fruitless quest for a legendary kingdom of riches called Quivira, probably in modern Kansas. The disappointed Coronado and his company returned to Mexico, but Padilla decided to go back to Quivira with some companions. After working for many months among the Wichita Indians, he was on his way to visit the Guas tribe but was ambushed by them while within sight of his companions, who escaped to Mexico.\par \cf2\f1\fs29\par \f2\fs24 PADILLA, JUAN DE\par \pard\li135\ri135\sa135\tx285\tx720\tx1440\tx2160\tx2880\tx3600\tx4320\tx5040\tx5760\tx6480\tx7200\tx7920\tx8640\tx9360\tx10080\tx10800\cf3\b\f3\fs34 Padilla, Juan De (c. 1500-c. 1544). \cf4\ul\b0\fs24 Franciscan missionary \cf2\ulnone and martyr. BornLVAL= in Andalusia, Spain, as a youth Padilla was probably a soldier, but after joining the Friars Minor, he came to New Spain (c. 1528), where he soon embarked on missionary ventures, serving as \cf4\ul chaplain \cf2\ulnone in Nu\'f1o de Guzm\'e1n's expedition to Nueva Galicia and Culiacan (1529-1530).\par \pard\fi285\li135\ri135\sa135\tx285\tx720\tx1440\tx2160\tx2880\tx3600\tx4320\tx5040\tx5760\tx6480\tx7200\tx7920\tx8640\tx9360\tx10080\tx10800 Padilla sought to protect natives from exploitation and made many missionary journeys to reach them. He also established monastic communities and served as superior at Tulantzingo during the 1530s. In 1540, yearning to reach tribesmen described by Fray Marcos de Niza, Padilla joined the Coronado expedition. Marching on foot, always in the vanguard, Padilla stayed with Coronado until they reached Zuni; then he joined smaller detachments which reached the Moqui and Hopi pueblos (near the Grand Canyon), and then to pueblos on the Rio Grande. In 1541 he marched with Don Lope de Urrea to the Pecos and later joined Coronado in quest of the legendary "Quivara," which turned out to be primitive villages in Kansas.\par Wanting to work with the Native Americans, Padilla remained in New Mexico when Coronado returned to Mexico. In 1542 he and a few companions returned to "Quivara," where he established a mission. The Native Americans nearby treated him well, but when he sought to do missionary work among a neighboring tribe, the Quiviras killed him, probably near Herington, Kansas.\par \pard\li180\ri180\sb15\sa30\tx285\tx720\tx1440\tx2160\tx2880\tx3600\tx4320\tx5040\tx5760\tx6480\tx7200\tx7920\tx8640\tx9360\tx10080\tx10800\cf5\b\fs34 BIBLIOGRAPHY. \cf2\b0\fs24 H. E. Bolton and T. M. Marxhall, \i The Colonization of North America \i0 (1935); H. E. Bolton, \i Coronado on the Turquoise Trail \i0 (1949); \i DAB \i0 VII.\par \pard\li135\ri135\sb135\sa135\qr\tx285\tx720\tx1440\tx2160\tx2880\tx3600\tx4320\tx5040\tx5760\tx6480\tx7200\tx7920\tx8640\tx9360\tx10080\tx10800 G. A. Reev LVAL d \par \pard\li135\ri135\sa135\tx285\tx720\tx1440\tx2160\tx2880\tx3600\tx4320\tx5040\tx5760\tx6480\tx7200\tx7920\tx8640\tx9360\tx10080\tx10800\par \f2\par \pard (from Dictionary of Christianity in America, edited by Daniel G. Reid, Robert D. Linder, Bruce L. Shelley and Harry S. Stout. \'a9 1990 by InterVarsity Christian Fellowship/USA; published by InterVarsity Press. All rights reserved.)\par \cf0\f4\fs28\par \cf2\f1\fs29\par } LVAL [?{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 PRESBYTER\par Presbyter\par (Gr. <START GREEK>\par presbu/tero$<END GREEK>\par ) is the title of an office or dignity in the Jewish synagogue (<START HEBREW>/qz<END HEBREW>\par ). It was introduced into the Christian Church, and designated an officer whose functions in the apostolic period are disputed by different ecclesiastical bodies. In the Roman Catholic and in the English hierarchy, the title has been the occasion of a protracted controversy as to the respective claims of the bishop (q.v.) and the presbyter. Those who maintain the presbyter as on equality with the episcopes argue as follows: With respect to the successors of the apostles, they seem to have been placed on a footing of perfect equality, the <START GREEK>\par dia/konoi<END GREEK>\par , or deacons, not being included among the teachers. They were inferior officers, whose province it originally was to care for the poor, and to discharge those secular duties arising out of the formation of Christian communities which could not be discharged by the ministers without interfering with the much higher duties which they had to perform. These ministers are sometimes in the New Testament styled <START GREEK>\par presbu/teroi<END GREEK>\par , or presbyters, at other times <START GREEK>\par e)pi/skopoi<END GREEK>\par , or bishops; but the two appellations were indiscriminately applied to all the pastors who were the instructors of the different churches. Of this various examples may be given from the sacred writings. The apostle Paul, upon a very affecting occasion, when he was convinced that he could never again have an opportunity of addressing them, sent for the elders, or presbyters, of Ephesus the persons to whom the ministry in that Church had been committed; and after mentioning all that he had done, and intimating to them theLVAL@ sufferings which awaited him, he addressed to them what may be considered as his dying advice, and as comprehending in it all that he judged it most essential for them to do: "Take heed, therefore, unto yourselves, and to all the flock over which the Holy Ghost hath made you bishops or overseers, to feed the Church of God" (Acts 20:17,28). Here they whose duty it was to feed the Church of God, as having been set apart through the Holy Spirit for that interesting work, are termed by the apostle presbyters and bishops, and there is not the slightest reference to the existence of any other <START GREEK>\par e)pi/skopo$<END GREEK>\par , or bishop, superior to those <START GREEK>\par e)piskopoi<END GREEK>\par , or bishops, to whom he gives the moving charge now recorded. In his epistle to Titus, Paul thus writes: "For this purpose I left thee in Crete," where, as yet, it is probable that no teachers had been appointed," that thou shouldest ordain elders, or presbyters, in every city." He then points out the class of men from which the presbyters were to be selected, adding, as the reason of this, "for a bishop must be blameless as the steward of God" (Titus 1:5,7). It is quite plain that the term bishop is here applicable to the same persons who were a little before styled elders, and both are declared to be the stewards of God, the guardians and instructors of his Church. The apostle Peter, in his first epistle addressed to the Jewish converts, has these words: "The elders which are among you I exhort, who am also an elder, <START GREEK>\par o( sumpresbu/tero$<END GREEK>\par , and a witness of the sufferings of Christ: feed the flock of God which is among you, taking the oversight of it, <START GREEK>\par e)piskopou=nte$<END GREEK>\par , being bishops of it, not by constraint, but willingly" (1 Peter 5:1,2). This passage is a very strong one. The apostle speaks of himself in his extraordinary capacity, a witness of the sufferings of Christ, and in his ordinary capacity as a teacher; showing, by LVALAthe use of a very significant term, that as to it he was on a footing of equality with the other pastors or presbyters. He gives it in charge to them to feed the flock of God; the charge which, under most particular and affecting circumstances, he had received from the Lord after the Resurrection, and which includes in it the performance of everything requisite for the comfort and the edification of Christians; and he accordingly expresses this by the word <START GREEK>\par e)piskopou=nte$<END GREEK>\par , being bishops over them. It cannot, with any shadow of reason, be supposed that the apostle would exhort the elders, or presbyters, to take to themselves the office, and to perform the duties, of a bishop, if that term really marked out a distinct and higher order; or that he would have considered the presbyters as fitted for the discharge of the whole ministerial office, if there were parts of that office which he knew that it was not lawful for them to exercise. See ELDER.\par It seems, by the passages that have been quoted, to be placed beyond a doubt, that, in what the apostles said respecting the ministers of Christ's religion, they taught that the <START GREEK>\par e)pi/skopoi<END GREEK>\par and the <START GREEK>\par presbu/teroi<END GREEK>\par were the same class of instructors; and that there were, in fact, only two orders pointed out by them, bishops or presbyters, and deacons. This being the case, even although it should appear that there were bishops, in the common sense of that term, recognized in the apostolic age, all that could be deduced from the fact would be, that the equality at first instituted among the teachers had, for prudential reasons, or under peculiar circumstances, been interrupted; but it would not follow either that the positive and general declarations on the subject by the inspired writers were not true, or that it was incumbent at all times, and upon all Christians, to disregard them. It has been strenuously contended that there were such bishops in the infLVALBancy of the Church, and that allusion is made to them in Scripture; but, without directly opposing the assertion, this much must be admitted, that the proof of it is less clear than that bishops and presbyters were represented as the same in rank and in authority. Indeed, there does not appear to have been any occasion for this higher order. To presbyters was actually committed the most important charge of feeding the Church of God, that is, of promoting the spiritual improvement of mankind; and it is remarkable that their privilege of separating from the people by ordination the ministers of religion is explicitly acknowledged in the case of Timothy, whom the apostle admonishes not to neglect the gift that was in him, and which had been given by prophecy, and by the laying-on of the hands of the presbytery; by which can be meant only the imposition of the hands of those who were denominated presbyters or bishops. But although all the parts of the ministerial duty had been entrusted to presbyters, it is still contended that the New Testament indicates the existence of bishops as a higher order. There has, however, been much diversity of opinion in relation to this point by those who contend for the divine institution of EPISCOPACY (q.v.). Some of them maintain that the apostles, while they lived, were the bishops of the Christian Church; but this, and upon irrefragable grounds, is denied by others. Some urge that Timothy and Titus were, in what they call the true sense of the term, bishops; but many deny this, founding their denial upon the fact that these evangelists did not reside within the bounds, and were not limited to the administration, of any one church, but were sent wherever it was resolved to bring men to the knowledge of divine truth. Many conceive that the question is settled by the epistles in the book of Revelation being addressed to the angels of the respective churches named by the apostle. But it is far from being obvious what is implied under the appellation angel. There has been mLVALCuch dispute about this point, and it is certainly a deviation from all the usual rules by which we are guided in interpreting Scripture to bring an obscure and doubtful passage in illustration of one about the import of which, if we attend to the language used, there can be no doubt.\par It may, therefore, be safely affirmed that there is nothing clear and specific in the writings of the New Testament which qualifies the positive declarations that bishops and presbyters were the same officers; that the ground upon which the distinction between them is placed is, at least, far from obviously supporting it; and that there is not the slightest intimation that the observance of such a distinction is at all important, much less absolutely essential, to a true Christian Church, insomuch that where it is disregarded the ordinances of divine appointment cannot be properly dispensed. If, therefore, it be established-and some of the most learned and zealous advocates for the hierarchy which afterwards arose have been compelled to admit it \emdash that Scripture has not recognized any difference of rank or order between the ordinary teachers of the Gospel, all other means of maintaining this difference should be with Protestants of no force. Says Coleman, "Even the most zealous advocates of the episcopal system in the Greek, Roman, and English Church are constrained to recognize and admit the identity of the terms <START GREEK>\par e)pi/skopo$<END GREEK>\par and <START GREEK>\par presbu/tero$<END GREEK>\par , according to the usus loquendi of the ancient Church. They are constrained to admit that the distinction between the office of bishop and presbyter, which prevailed about the 3 rd and 4 th centuries, and to a period still later, was unknown in the first two centuries." It may be shown that the admission of the distinction is not incompatible with the great ends for which a ministry was appointed, and even in particular cases may tend to promote them; but still it is merely a matter of human regulatioLVALDn, not binding upon Christians, and not in any way connected with the vital influence of the Gospel dispensation. The whole of the writers of antiquity might be urged in support of it, if that could be done; and, after all, every private Christian would be entitled to judge for himself, and to be directed by his own judgment, unless it be maintained that where Scripture has affirmed the existence of equality, this is to be counteracted and set at naught by the testimonies and assertions of a set of writers who, although honored with the name of fathers, are very far, indeed, from being infallible, and who have, in fact, often delivered sentiments which even they who, upon a particular emergency, cling to them must confess to be directly at variance with all that is sound in reason or venerable and sublime in religion. It also follows, from the Scriptural identity of bishops and presbyters, that no Church in which this identity is preserved can on that account be considered as having departed from the apostolic model, or its ministers be viewed, at least with any good reason, as having less ground to hope for the blessing of God upon their spiritual labors; because if we admit the contrary, we must also admit that the inspired writers, instead of properly regulating the Church, betrayed it into error by omitting to make a distinction closely allied with the essence of religion. What is this but to say that it is safer to follow the erring direction of frail mortals than to follow the admonitions of those who, it is universally allowed, were inspired by the Holy Spirit, or commissioned by him to be the instructors of the world? It is to be observed, however, that although bishops and presbyters were the same when the epistles of the New Testament were written, it would be going too far to contend that no departure from this should ever take place; because, to justify such a position, it would be requisite that a positive injunction should have been given that equality must at all times be carefully presLVALEerved. There is, however, no such injunction. Unlike the Old Testament, which specified everything, even the most minute, in relation to the priesthood, the New only refers in general terms, and very seldom, to the ministry; and the reason probably is, that, being intended for all nations, it left Christians at liberty to snake such modifications in the ecclesiastical constitution as in their peculiar situation appeared best adapted for religious edification. The simple test to be applied to the varying or varied forms of Church government is that indicated by our Lord himself: "By their fruits ye shall know them." Wherever the regulations respecting the ministry are such as to divert it from the purposes for which it was destined, to separate those who form it from the flock of Christ, to relax their diligence in teaching, and to destroy the connection between them and their people, so as to render their exertions of little or of no use, there we find a Church not apostolical. But wherever the blessed fruits of Gospel teaching are in abundance produced, where the people and the ministers are cordially united and where every regulation is calculated to give efficacy to the labors of those who have entered into the vineyard, we have an apostolical Church, or, to speak more properly, a Church of Christ built upon a rock, because devoted to the beneficent objects for, which our Savior came into the world.\par Schaff, in his Hist. of the Christian Church (1, 418 sq.), adduces, in favor of the view which denies the apostolic origin of the episcopate as a separate office or order, the following facts:\par "1. The undeniable identity of presbyters and bishops in the New Testament, conceded even by the best interpreters among the Church fathers, by Jerome, Chrysostom, and Theodoret.\par 2. Later, in the 2 nd century, the two terms are still used in like manner for the same office. The Roman bishop Clement, in his first epistle to the Corinthians, says that the apostles, in the newly founded churches, appoiLVALFnted the first fruits of the faith, i.e. the first converts. <START GREEK>\par e)pisko/pou$ kai\\ diakonou$<END GREEK>\par . He here omits the <START GREEK>\par presbu/teroi<END GREEK>\par , as Paul does in Phil 1:1, for the simple reason that they are in his view iden. tical with <START GREEK>\par e)pi/skopoi<END GREEK>\par ; while, conversely, in ch. 57, he enjoins subjection to presbyters, without mentioning bishops. Clement of Alexandria distinguishes, it is true, the deaconate, the presbyterate, and the episcopate; but he supposes only a twofold official character, that of presbyters and that of deacons-a view which found advocates so late as the Middle Ages, even in pope Urban II, 1091. Lastly, Irenseus, towards the close of the 2 nd century, though himself a bishop, makes only a relative difference between episcopi and presbyteri; speaks of successions of the one in the same sense as of the other; terms the office of the latter episcopatus; and calls the bishops of Rome <START GREEK>\par presbu/teroi<END GREEK>\par . Sometimes, it is true, he appears to use the term <START GREEK>\par presbu/teroi<END GREEK>\par , in a more general sense, for the old men, the fathers. But, in any case, his language shows that the distinction between the two offices was at that time still relative and indefinite.\par 3. The express testimony of the learned Jerome is that the churches originally, before divisions arose through the instigation of Satan, were governed by the common council of the presbyters, and not till a later period was one of the presbyters placed at the head to watch over the Church and suppress schisms. He traces the difference of the office simply to ecclesiastical custom as distinct from divine institution.\par 4. The custom of the Church of Alexandria was, from the evangelist Mark down to the middle of the 3 rd century, that the twelve presbyters elected one of their number president and called him bishop. "This fact rests on the authority of Jerome, and is confirmed independenLVALGtly by the Annals of the Alexandrian patriarch Eutychius of the 10 th century."\par Killen, in his Ancient Church, asserts: "Though the senior presbyter presided in the meetings of his brethren, and was soon known by the name of bishop, it does not appear that he originally possessed any superior authority. He held his place for life; but as he was sinking under the weight of years when he succeeded to it, he could not venture to anticipate an extended career of official distinction. In all matters relating either to discipline or the general interests of the brotherhood, he was expected to carry out the decisions of the eldership; so that, under his presidential rule, the Church was still substantially governed by 'the common council of the presbyters.' The allegation that presbyterial government existed in all its integrity towards the end of the 2 nd century does not rest on the foundation of obscure intimations or doubtful inferences. It can be established by direct and conclusive testimony. Evidence has already been adduced to show that the senior presbyter of Smyrna continued to preside until the days of Irenaus, and there is also documentary proof that meanwhile he possessed no autocratical authority. The supreme power was still vested in the council of the elders. This point is attested by Hippolytus, who was now just entering on his ecclesiastical career, and who, in one of his works, a fragment of which has been preserved, describes the manner in which the rulers of the Church dealt with the heretic Noetus. The transaction probably occurred about 190." It shows that the presbyters then exercised episcopal functions, even to excommunication.\par Says Dr. Blakie (The Presbyterian Churches throughout the World [Edinb. 1877], p. 1): "It is admitted even by many Episcopalians that, so far as Scripture indicates, the primitive Church constituted under the apostles was governed by elders. The office of apostle was temporary, and some other temporary arrangements were resorted to in the peculiar LVALHcircumstances of the Church. But everywhere in settled churches there was a body of presbyters or elders; the terms presbyter and bishop were applied freely to the same individuals; and when the presbyters were addressed together, as those of Ephesus were addressed at Miletus, there was no hint of one of them having authority over the rest; they were called equally to feed and care for the Church over which the Holy Ghost had made them overseers."\par The offices of presbyter and bishop, according to the Roman Catholic theory, belong both, though in different degrees, to what Roman Catholics regard as the priesthood of the New Law. They teach that the presbyter is, in the sacerdotal order, an intermediate degree between the deacon and the highest functionary of the hierarchy, the episcopos. They also maintain stoutly that Scripture and tradition attest alike the divine institution of the presbyteriate. "Besides the apostles, the Lord marked out of the troop of his followers seventy (according to the Vulg. seventy-two), whom he sent out before him, two by two, into the cities and towns he intended to visit, with the mission of healing the sick and proclaiming the kingdom of God. These seventy men were, in consequence, the assistants of the apostles, but subordinated to them. Soon their number proved insufficient, and the apostles established in every city of some importance, at the foundation of the community, or when it had reached a certain degree of development, besides the bishop, whom they intended for their permanent representative and successor, a number of presbyters, who assisted the bishop in his functions." The Roman Catholic Church, as she considers the bishops the successors of the apostles, so she holds the presbyters to be the successors of the seventy assistants chosen by Christ himself. Inasmuch as they are entitled to perform the highest function of the priesthood, the administration of the Eucharist, they are called also sacerdos (<START GREEK>\par iEpE@x<END GREEK>\par ); yet thiLVALIs denomination, if not specified, applies only to the bishop: therefore we find frequently the summus sacerdos, or sacerdos primi ordinis. i.e. the bishop, thus distinguished from the simple priest, who is sacerdos secundi ordinis. The presbyters of an episcopal church had a share in the government, not individually, but as a college, presided over by the bishop; they had no jurisdiction of their own, and were merely assistants to the bishop. The bishop took their advice on the admission of higher clerical functionaries, on the management of discipline, especially of penitence, etc. They were themselves amenable to the spiritual jurisdiction of the bishop, and depended on him in the discharge of their duties as teachers and as priests. According to Roman Catholics, the bishop alone possesses the priesthood in its fullness, while the presbyter possesses it only in part. The functions, however, which belong to that part are discharged alike by the bishop and the presbyter. What those functions are will be detailed under the head PRIEST (q.v.). It is, of course, an easy matter for the prelatical churchmen to prove that by the end of the 2 nd century the bishop was above the presbyter. Even before the end of the 2 nd century the Church had departed from her early simplicity, and soon the episcopacy became the only prevalent government of the Church, although in some cases, as among the Culdees or the Waldenses, government by presbyters continued to prevail during the Middle Ages. The Church fathers of the 3 rd and 4 th centuries point to the superiority of the episcopos. Thus Clement of Rome points out clearly three different hierarchical degrees; bishops, priests, and deacons; and Ignatius of Antioch lays particular stress on the superior power of the bishops (Epist. ad Magnes. c. 6; Smyrn. c. 8, etc.). Affirmations of the same kind are given by Tertullian, Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Cyprian, etc. "It is true," say the Romanists, "that the bishops, in the fathers as well as in Scripture, arLVALJe sometimes called merely priests, but there is not one passage in which a simple priest is called bishop." Those who accept the authority of St. Jerome for the equality of the bishop and presbyter because he says (Comment. on the Epistle to Titus), "Noverint episcopi, se magis consuetudine quam dispositione Dominica presbyteris esse majores, et in commune debere ecclesiam regere, imitantes Moysen, qui cum haberet solus praeesse populo Israel, septuaginta elegit, cum quibus populum judicaret," are replied to by Romanists that (1) "even this parallel between Moses and his seventy, and the bishop and his presbyters, implies the pre-eminence of the bishop," and (2) that, "in the passage in question, St. Jerome is upbraiding a number of deacons who, in several places, and especially at Rome, had committed several encroachments on the rights of the presbyters in the administration of the ecclesiastical possessions. He, on this occasion, exalts the presbyters as much as he can, and in such cases where an abuse is to be eradicated, it frequently happens to this father to fall into the opposite extreme, as he does in his treatise De Virginitate adv. Jovinianum, in which, as an encomiast of virginity, he deems fit to treat matrimony with the most cruel contempt. He shows in other places his sense of the superiority of the episcopate: 'Quod Aaron et filii ejus atque Levitoe in temple, hoc sibi episcopi et presbvteri et diaconi vindicant.' The bishops have the same authority over priests and deacons that Aaron had over his sons and Levites. He speaks still more pointedly in his work against the Luciferians: 'Ecclesiae salus in summi sacerdotis (i.e. episcopi) dignitate pendet, cui si non exsors qubedam et ab omnibus eminens detur potestas, tot in ecclesiis efficientur schismata, quot sacerdotes.' But even if Jerome's opinion were contrary to the episcopal supremacy, what could it avail against the uninterrupted and unanimous tradition of so many fathers and ecclesiastical writers of the early centuries? If reallLVALy the episcopate had not been originally distinct from the presbyteriate, we should then have to understand that a sudden and uniform change in the constitution of the Church took place in the whole extent of its expansion-that in all the communities, and at the same time, some ambitious and proud individualities set themselves above their colleagues." "But how," ask Romanists, "could this have come to pass without a long and desperate struggle; and how could this struggle, if it did take place, end so uniformly, in all the churches without exception, with the victory of the usurpers? History does not mention the least fact that anything of that kind ever took place. When several presbyters were attached to a single church, of which there were some instances, one of the number received the title of proto-presbyter, or arch-presbyter; but it is quite certain that this office bore no analogy to that of the bishop." To these arguments of Roman Catholics it is readily replied that the New Testament (as above seen) does explicitly refer to the original equality of presbyters and bishops, and that history contains not a few nor obscure indications of the usurpation of exclusive prerogatives by the latter. See, for Roman Catholic views, Wetzer u. Welte, Kirchen-Lexikon; for High Church Anglican views, Blunt, Dict. Hist. Theol.; for Low-Church views, Herzog, Real-Encyklop., the authorities already quoted, and the Lond. Quar. Rev. Jan. 1878, art. 5; Princeton Rev. Jan. 1878, art. 4. See PRELACY.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par \fs29\par } LVAL [L{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 PRESBYTERIAL CONSECRATION\par Presbyterial Consecration\par in the Roman Catholic Church, comprises the ceremonies and religious acts by which a deacon is invested with the presbyterial power-the power over the true and the symbolic body of Christ. The exterior apparatus of the ceremony consists in the oil of the catechumens, a chalice with wine and water, a paten with a host, some crumbs of bread, a vessel for the washing of the hands, some linen towels. The ceremony performed is as follows: The bishop, after consecrating the deacons, reads the Tractus (and the Sequence) to the last verse, exclusively. Then he advances with the infula to the middle of the altar, where he sits down on the faldistorium (chair). At this moment the archdeacon calls all to be ordained priests with the words. "Accedant qui ordinandi sunt ad ordinemr presbyterats." The notary reads their names; they proceed, each with taper in hand, to form a half-circle (in modum coronae) in front of the bishop, to whom they are introduced by the archdeacon with the words, "Reverend father, the holy Catholic Church requires that you consecrate the deacons here present for the burdensome office of priesthood." Whereupon the bishop asks, "Doest thou know that they are deserving of it?" The archdeacon answers. "So far as human weakness allows me a knowledge of it, I know and declare that they are worthy to take upon them the burden of that office." The bishop says, "God be thanked!" and turns to the clergy and people with these words: "Beloved brethren! as the pilot of a ship and those who travel on it share together both security and danger, they must in matters concerning their common interest share the same convictions. Not without good reason, the fathers have directed that the people also should be consulted on the choice of those who aLVALMre to be admitted to the service of the altar; for sometimes a few can give information about the way of life and habits of those who present themselves for consecration not known to the masses, etc. If, therefore, any one have objections of importance, let him step out before God, and for God's sake speak fearlessly; yet let him not forget that he is only a man (that he may err)." After a short, expectant pause, the people assenting by their silence the bishop turns to the candidates and addresses them thus: "Consecrandi, filii dilectissimi, in presbyteratas officium, illud digne suscipere, ac susceptum lautabiliter exequi studeatis," etc. In the course of this allocution, mention is made of the high purpose of the New-Testament priesthood, and after a comparison with the priesthood of the Old Covenant, follow these words: "Hac certe mira varietate ecclesia sancta circumdatur ornatur et regitur: cum alii in ea pontifices, alii minoris ordinis sacerdotes, diaconi et subdiaconi, diversorum ordinum viri consecrantur, et ex multis et alternae dignitatis membris unum corpus efficitur." If no deacons or subdeacons have been consecrated, the Litany of All Saints is recited, while the ordinands are on their knees. Hereupon they step, in pairs, into the presence of the bishop, who, standing erect (with the infula), lays both his hands on the head of each of them, without speaking or singing. The same is done by all the priests present, dressed in the stola, and of whom there must be at least three. Then the priests and the bishop hold their right hands extended over the ordinands, and the bishop, standing with the infula, thus addresses the clergy: "Beloved brethren! let us implore God Almighty that he may pour over these, his servants, whom he has chosen for the office of priesthood, heavenly gifts in abundance, so that, with his help, they may be able to perform the duties which they have been deemed worthy of assuming. Amen." The bishop lays down the infula, turns towards the altar, and says, "Oremus." TheLVALN ministri add, "Flectamus genua." The responsorium is "Levate!" Then he turns to the ordinands, saying, "Exaudi nos, queesumus, Domine Deus noster." After the conclusion \emdash "in unitate ejusdem spiritils sancti Deus" \emdash he extends his hands, saying, "Per omnia soecula," etc. Now follow long prayers, after which the bishop sits down with the miter, seizes that part of the stola which hangs backwards from the left shoulder of the ordinand lays it over his right shoulder, and puts both parts crosswise over each other on the chest, saying, "Take the yoke of the Lord upon thee; for his yoke is easy and his burden is light." Hereupon the bishop dresses each of them in the missal garment, which hangs loose in front, but is rolled or pinned up behind, saving, "Take the priestly garment, which means love; for God is mighty to increase love in thee and make thy work perfect." Response, "Thanks to God." Now the bishop rises, lays down the infula, and prays, while all kneel, "Deus sanctificationum omnium auctor," etc. After this the bishop kneels, facing the altar, and begins the hymn, "Veni Creator Spiritus," etc., which the choir sings. As soon as the first verse is sung the bishop rises, sits down on the chair, with the infula on his head, pulls off his gloves, puts on his ring, takes a white linen towel on his knees, and anoints the hands of each of the ordinands kneeling before him with the oil of the catechumens, passing with his thumb dipped into the holy oil crosswise from the thumb of one hand to the index of the other, with this prayer: "Consecrate and sanctify, O Lord, these hands by this anointment and our blessing." Then, with his right hand, he makes the sign of the cross over the hands of the candidate whom he consecrates, and continues: "In order that everything that they bless may be blessed, and what they consecrate may be consecrated and sanctified, in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ." Each of the ordinands says "Amen." (From this anointment the thumbs and forefingers of a priest aLVALOre called the canonic fingers; and as this anointment is performed on the inner side of the hand, the priests to whom the last sacraments are administered are anointed on the outside of the hand.) Then the bishop joins the hands of each of them, and one of the ministrants ties them together with a piece of linen. When all hands are anointed, the bishop wipes his thumb with crumbs of bread; then he presents to each of them a chalice with wine and water, with the paten placed over it, and containing a host. The ordinands touch the top of the chalice and the paten with the index and middle finger, and the bishop says to each in particular, "Receive the power of offering God the sacrifice and to say mass for the living as well as for the dead, in the name of the Lord." Response: "Amen." Now the bishop washes his hands, returns to his chair, and reads the last verse of the Tractus, and then the Gospel. Meanwhile one of the newly consecrated deacons steps in front of the altar with the book of the Gospels, prays the "Munda cor meum," and reads the Gospel, after receiving the benediction thereto. The newly consecrated priests wipe their hands with breadcrumbs, wash them, and dry them with the linen with which they were bound. The water used for washing is poured into the piscina. As all consecrated receive the Eucharist at the hands of the bishop, there must be as many hosts prepared as there are candidates for ordination. After the reading of the offertorium (short prayer preceding the sacrifice of the bread and wine), all those who have been consecrated-first the priests, then the deacons, then the others according to their rank-step in pairs into the presence of the bishop, who sits on his chair with the infula on his head, kneel down, kiss his hand, and present a burning taper as an offering. The bishop, after receiving the offerings, washes his hands, lays down the infulla, rises, and, the chair being removed, continues the ceremony of the mass. The consecrated priests kneel down behind the bishop on thLVALPe prie-dieus prepared for them, each his mass-book open before him; they say with the bishop the prayers accompanying the offering of the bread and the wine, and the whole mass. The bishop speaks slowly and somewhat loud, so that the consecrated priests can at the same time pronounce the same words, especially the words of consecration. The "secreta" (silent prayer) for the consecrated ones is pronounced with the secreta of the mass of the day under one formula of conclusion: "Per Dominum nostrum," etc. The secreta pro ordinandis is, "We ask thee, O Lord! let thy holy mysteries effect that we offer thee these offerings with a worthy disposition, through our Lord Jesus Christ, thy Son," etc. After the paternoster and the prayer "Domine Jesu Christe, qui," etc., which follows the "Agnus Dei," the bishop kisses the altar; and after the first of the newly consecrated has done the same, he kisses him at each step, with the words "Peace be with you." The new priest answers, "And with your mind." Each of the consecrated ones gives the kiss of peace to the other person ordained to the same rank and standing next. After the communion of the bishop, the deacons and subdeacons (if there are any) pray "Confiteor" in a subdued voice, the bishop, facing them, pronouncing the "Misereatur vestri" and "Indulgentiam." If priests only have been ordained, they do not receive absolution, as they perform the sacrifice together with the bishop. All proceed, two by two, to the highest step of the altar, and receive the sacrament in the form of the bread. The bishop says, "The body of our Lord Jesus Christ preserve you for eternal life." Each answers "Amen." When all have partaken of the communion, the bishop removes the paten from his chalice, moistens his fingers, takes the ablution, puts on the infula, and washes his hands. Then he lays down the infula again, and, standing at the epistle side of the altar, sings the responsorium, "Henceforward I shall no more call you my servants, but my friends, because you have known eveLVALQrything which I have done among you. Alleluia," etc. Then the bishop, with the infula, turns to the newly consecrated priests, who recite the credo. This done, the bishop sits down on his chair in the middle of the altar, and puts both hands on the head of each of them, who kneel before him, saying, "Take the Holy Spirit; they whom thou shalt forgive their sins, they shall be forgiven; and they," etc. Then he pulls down the missal garment, saying, "In the garment of innocence the Lord dresses thee." Then each of the young priests approaches again, kneels before the bishop, puts his folded hands into the bishop's hands; and he, if he is the diocesan bishop, says to each, "Doest thou promise to me and my successors reverence and obedience?" Answer: "I promise." If the newly consecrated belongs to another diocese, the bishop says, "Doest thou promise to the bishop," etc. After the answer "I promise," the bishop kisses each of them, holding still his hands in his, and says, "'The peace of the Lord be with thee always." Now the bishop takes his cross and gives, sitting, the following admonition to the new priests: "Quia res quam tractaturi estis satis periculosa est," etc. Finally he pronounces, standing, the triple benediction over the kneeling priests: "The blessing of the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost come upon you, that you may be blessed in your priesthood, and offer expiatory sacrifices for the sins and transgressions of the people of God, to whom glory and praise be given in all eternity. Amen." The bishop continues the mass, and connects with the last missal prayer the prayer for the consecrated ones: "Quos tuis, Domine, reficis sacramentis," etc., under one formula of conclusion. Then follows the "Ite, missa est" or the "Benedicamus Domino," as the time may require. This is followed by the "Placeat tibi sancta Trinitas;" and the bishop, the infula on his head and the cross in his hand, pronounces the benediction in the usual manner: "The name of the Lord be blessed." etc. Response: "Now LVALRand in all eternity." "Our help comes in the name of the Lord." Response: "Who hath created heaven and earth." "The blessing of the Almighty God, Father, Son, and Holy Ghost descend upon you and remain with you. Amen." Then the bishop holds a parting address to the newly consecrated: "Beloved sons, consider earnestly what consecration you have received and what burden has been put on your shoulders. Let it be your foremost endeavor to lead a holy, godly life, and to please God Almighty," etc. Finally the archdeacon turns to the clergy and people and announces an indulgence. Hereupon the bishop reads the last Gospel, returns to his seat, and lays down the pontifical robes. The consecrated priests repair to the vergery and put down the missal garments. It must not be overlooked that the ordained priests, after the offertorium, from the sacrificial act, "Suscipe, sancte Pater," say all the missal prayers with the bishop \emdash concelebrate with him. This concelebration is in use also in the Greek Church. It is difficult to ascertain the age of this custom. It seems to have been adopted at different times in different places. The Synod of Carthage, in 398, in the accurate description it gives of the consecration, does not mention the anointment, neither does Isidore of Spain; but the rite was known to Theodulph of Orleans and Amalarius of Treves. The rite of the consecration differs considerably in the Eastern Church from the account given above; but the imposition of the hands is also the essential part of it. According to Goar's description, the principal parts of the Greek rite are the following: Two deacons lead the ordinand to the church-door; here they leave him; he is received by two priests, who walk thrice with him around the communion-table, singing, "Sancti martyres praeclare praeliati." Passing before the bishop, they bow, and the ordinand kisses his knee. The bishop rises, the ordinand approaches, and the bishop makes three times the sign of the cross over the candidate's head. The deacon e>LVALNxclaims, "Attendants!" and the bishop lays his right hand on the candidate's head, saying, "Divina gratia, quoe semper infirma curat, et ea quie desunt adimplet, promovet N. devotissimum diaconum in presbyterum: oremus pro eo, ut veniat super eum sanctissimi Spirituis gratia." The people present say thrice, "Domine, miserere." The bishop makes again the sign of the cross and puts his right hand on the candidate, saying, in an undertone, while the deacon exclaims "Dominum precemur," the prayer, "Deus principio et fine carens, omni creatura antiquior . . . ipse omnium Domine, istum quem tibi a me promoveri complacuit, in conversatione inculpati, et fide indeficiente ingentem etiam hane gratiam Sancti tui Spirituis recipere complaceat," etc. Again the bishop implores the gift of the Holy Ghost for the newly consecrated, extending his hand over him with the words, "Deus in virtute magnus, intellectu investigabills . . . ipse Domine, etiam et istum, quem tibi presbyteri gradum subire complacuit, dono sancto tui Spiritus adimple, ut inculpate sancto tuo altari assistere dignus fiat," etc. This short extract shows that the Greek rite resembles greatly the Latin ceremony and diverse from it specially in this, that it prescribes only the imposition of one hand. The traoditio instrumentorum is not part of the Greek rite. \emdash Wetzer u. Welte, Kirchen Lexikon, s.v. Presbyteriatsweihe. See Foye, Romish Rites (Lond. 1851).\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par \fs29\par } LVAL{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 MAADAI\par Ma'adai\par (Heb. Maaday', <START HEBREW>yd^u&m^<END HEBREW>\par , ornamental; Sept. <START GREEK>\par Moodi/a<END GREEK>\par ), one of the "sons" of Bani who divorced his Gentile wife after the exile (Ezra 10:34). B.C. 459. \par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par } {\rtf1\ansi\ansicpg1252\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\cf1\lang1033\f0\fs29 PRESBYTERIAN ALLIANCE\par \par Presbyterian Alliance\par \par is the popular name of "The Alliance of the Reformed Churches throughout the World Holding the Presbyterian System," which was formed in London, England, in July 1875, on the plan of voluntary association, by those bodies that chose to send delegates, and which held its first general council, so composed, at Edinburgh, Scotland, July 3 to 10, 1877, and its second in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, September 23 to October 2, 1880. At these meetings topics of general fraternal interest were discussed in papers formally prepared by divines appointed for this purpose, and the proceedings of each were published in full.\par (from McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia, Electronic Database. Copyright \'a9 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)\par \par \par } LVAL [U{\rtf1\ansi\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES\par Presbyterian Churches\par The different bodies into which the Presbyterians are divided will here be treated as nearly in the historical relation which they sustain towards each other as it is possible to place them. We begin with the Presbyterians of Scotland, because they are, among all English-speaking nations, the only ones directly allied with the state by establishment, and because it is from Scotland that English and American Presbyterianism has obtained nourishment and succor, rather than from the Continent, however true it be that Presbyterianism had there its origin. See PRESBYTERIANISM; See PRESBYTERIANS.\par 1. PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH IN SCOTLAND. \emdash A history of the Presbyterian Church in Scotland would be, in effect, a history of that country; for since its establishment by the Reformation its political and religious history have flowed on in one and the same channel. Christianity was planted in Scotland about the beginning of the 3 rd century; and it is claimed that the early churches, particularly those of the ancient Culldees, were non-prelatical. Under the vigorous missions of Palladius and Augustine they were, however, reduced to conformity with the rule of Rome, and so remained until the period of the Reformation. At that time the corruption of the hierarchy, its encroachments on the civil power, and its greedy appropriation of the right of patronage to benefices, had created a wide-spread dissatisfaction, and prepared the way for the favorable reception of the principles of the Reformation. For twenty years persecution followed, and many were burned at the stake, among whom were Patrick Hamilton and George Wishart. The first general and public movement leading to the organization of the Presbyterian Church of Scotland was the drawing-up of a common boLVALVnd or covenant, known as "The First Covenant," and subscribed at Edinburgh, Dec. 3,1557, by several of the most powerful of the Scotch nobility and a large number of lesser barons and influential country gentlemen, known subsequently (on account of their frequent use of the word congregation to designate those for whom they professed to act) as lords of the congregation. The signing of the covenant was followed by a proclamation from the queen regent forbidding any one to preach or administer the sacrament without the authority of the bishop. At length, however, the party of the Reformers triumphed, and in the year 1560 (Aug. 17-24) the Parliament abolished the Roman Catholic worship, adopted a confession of faith agreeing with the confessions of the Reformed churches on the Continent, appointed ministers of the Protestant religion in eight principal towns, and assigned the remaining portions of the country to five other ministers as superintendents who were to take temporary charge of the interests of religion in their several districts.\par On Dec. 20, 1560, the first General Assembly of the Church of Scotland was constituted in Edinburgh, consisting of six ministers and thirty-four laymen. Up to this period, the Scottish Reformers had followed, as their rule of worship and doctrine, the Book of Common Order used by the English Church at Geneva. In April, 1560, however, the Privy Council appointed a committee of five persons, including Knox, "to commit to writing their judgments touching the reformation of religion." This First Book of Discipline, setting forth a polity adapted to the existing condition of affairs, though adopted by the Church, was rejected by the nobles, who wished to appropriate to themselves the patrimony of the old Church. In 1581 the Second Book of Discipline, drawing its system directly from the Scriptures, was adopted by the Assembly, and this-confirmed in 1592 by King James, along with the Westminster documents-is still in force. Nothing but the undaunted perseverance of thLVALWose two eminent men, John Knox and Andrew Melville, succeeded at last in procuring the complete recognition of the Calvinistic faith and the Presbyterian form of government as the established religion of Scotland, which was finally and formally effected by act of Parliament and with the consent of king James (I of England and VI of Scotland) in the year 1592.\par The duplicity of the king, however, soon became apparent, for within a few years he intrigued to bring about the establishment of Episcopacy, and to assimilate the two national churches of Scotland and England. In this he was followed by his successors, Charles I, Charles II, and James II. The resistance of the people, the bloody persecutions that ensued, the civil turmoil, and the subsequent downfall of the Stuart dynasty, are matters of history. From 1660 to 1688, the Church was in the wilderness, scourged by such men as Claverhouse (q.v.) and Dalziel (q.v.), but leaving the record of many noble martyrdoms-as given in the story of the Scots Worthies and the Cloud of Witnesses. See COVENANT AND SOLEMN LEAGUE. Under William and Mary, Presbyterianism again became ascendant. In 1690 an "Act of Settlement" was passed, prelacy was abolished, and the Westminster Confession recognized as the creed of the Church. But the settlement of the Church on this basis was objected to by a small body of earnest men, the "Reformed Presbyterians," who had already distinguished themselves in zeal for the "Covenants" as securities alike for the freedom of the Church and the Christianity of the State, and who now felt unable either to enter into the Church or to give their unqualified adherence to the constitution of the State. Many of the more earnest descendants of the Covenanters (q.v.) protested against the reception of such men into the Church, and, finding their protest in vain, withdrew, and organized the Reformed Presbyterian Church. (See below.) Though this secession took place in 1681, the churches were not finally organized into a presbytery till 1743.LVALX Upon the union of the two kingdoms in 1707, Presbyterianism obtained every guarantee that could be desired. Since that time it has continued to be the established religion of Scotland, as much as Episcopacy is that of England.\par The only confession of faith legally established before the Revolution of 1688 was that which is published in the History of the Reformation in Scotland, attributed to John Knox. It consists of twenty-five articles, and was the confession of the Episcopal as well as of the Presbyterian Church. The Parliament, however, during the Commonwealth, adopted the Westminster Confession. At the Revolution this confession was declared to be the standard of the national faith; and it was ordained by the same acts of Parliament which settled Presbyterian Church government in Scotland, "that no person be admitted or continued hereafter to be a minister or preacher within this Church unless he subscribe the [that is, this] confession of faith, declaring the same to be the confession of his faith." By the act of union in 1707 the same is required of all professors, principals, regents, masters, and others bearing office.\par The Westminster Confession of Faith, then, and what are called the Larger and Shorter Catechisms, contain the publicly recognized doctrines of this Church; and it is well known that these formularies are an embodiment of the Calvinistic faith. No liturgy or public form of prayer is used in the Church of Scotland, the minister's only guide being the Directory for the Public Worship of God. The administration of the Lord's Supper, as a general thing observed four times a year, is conducted with simple forms, but is accompanied, usually preceded and followed, by special religious services, consisting of prayers and exhortations. A metrical version of the Psalms on the basis of that of Rous (died 1659) is used, and supplementary hymns have recently been introduced.\par The provision which has been made by the law of Scotland for the support of the clergy of the EstablisLVALYhed Church consists of a stipend, a small glebe of land, and a manse (parsonage house) and office houses. By an act of Parliament passed in 1810, \'a310,000 per annum were granted for augmenting the smaller parish stipends in Scotland. By this act the lowest stipend assigned to a minister of the establishment is \'a3150 sterling, with a small sum, generally \'a38 6 s. 8 d., for communion elements. Patronage, in part abrogated at the Revolution, was restored in 1712 by act of Parliament. Scottish independence rebelled at this, the people claiming the right to elect their own clergy, or at least to exercise a veto over the appointment of an unsatisfactory one; and the controversy which ensued led to secession, which was ushered in first by indifference, and was helped on by the renewal of the old interest. From that time a worldly spirit crept into the Church; men of talents, but lax in principle, obtained possession of influential positions; the leaven of moderatism \emdash ridiculed in Dr. Witherspoon's Characteristics \emdash set extensively to work; and in the course of time Arminian, Pelagian, and even Socinian tenets were propagated, with little attempt at concealment. The result was the secession of several important bodies from the Church. The first who formally withdrew were the Covenanters, or Cameronians, who objected to the interference of the state authorities in Church affairs, and to the Erastian principle involved in the existing establishment, as inconsistent with the covenant to which the Church had sworn. See CAMERONIANS. A few faithful men, led by Ebenezer Erskine, endeavored to breast the tide; but, being deposed by the commission of the Assembly, who were Moderates, they seceded in 1733, and formed themselves into a distinct body, called the Associated Presbytery, more commonly known as Seceders. They became known as the Secession Church. This secession proved a severe blow, and shook the establishment to its foundations. Another secession arose in 1760, and from it was formed thLVALZe Presbyterians of Relief, better known as "The Relief Synod." These bodies have since been united, and constitute the United Presbyterian Church of Scotland. Those who remained in the Established Church were divided in opinion on the subject of lay patronage. The sentiment against it continued to grow because of the indifference of the clergy. For a while moderatism held the upper hand, but its reign was dreary. Under the dominant influence of principal Robertson, whose studies were more devoted to elegant literature than to the Holy Scriptures, the preaching of tie Gospel was superseded by moral essays, and Dr. Blair's cold and polished sermons were regarded as models of the highest excellence. This state of things continued till near the close of the 18 th century, when Christians in Scotland began to share in that general reviving of evangelical principles which then pervaded Great Britain. A positive reaction set in, and gradually new life began to animate the frozen limbs of the Established Church. The evangelical party took heart, and constantly increased in strength. Dr. Andrew Thomson, Dr. Chalmers, and others came upon the stage of action, and under their vigorous lead a new era was inaugurated. The Assembly entered with zeal into the subject of foreign missions, while it multiplied churches to supply the need at home. The burden of patronage was felt to be a great hindrance to the progress of vital piety and active effort, and the autonomy or independent jurisdiction of the Church became a topic of earnest debate.\par In 1834 the General Assembly passed the celebrated "Veto Act," giving to the Church courts the power of rejecting a presentee if judged by them unfit. This act was set aside by the civil court, and subsequently, on appeal, by the House of Lords, in the Auchterarder case, in 1839. The Assembly yielded so far as the temporalities were concerned, but at the same time unequivocally maintained the principle of non-intrusion as one that could not be given up consistently with the dLVAL[octrine of the headship and sovereignty of Christ. The Strathlbogie case next occurred, bringing the civil and ecclesiastical courts into direct collision, which ended at last in the Disruption of 1843, under the lead of Chalmers, Cunningham, Welsh, Candlish, and Dunlop; 470 members signed an "Act of Separation and Deed of Demission," and the Free Church of Scotland was organized. Soon after the separation of 1843 an act of Parliament was passed, called "Lord Aberdeen's Act," to define the rights of congregations and presbyteries in the calling and settlement of ministers. But in 1874 this was suspended by another act, whereby patronage was abolished, and the right of electing ministers was vested in the people. Government still reserves, however, the appointment of theological professors. The Free Church carried off about one half the communicants of the Established Church, and became a rival communion in most of the parishes of Scotland. The three denominations-the Established Presbyterian Church, the United Presbyterian Church, and the Free Church (in which the Reformed Presbyterian Church merged in 1876) -constitute the chief Presbyterian churches of Scotland at the present time. See SCOTLAND, CHURCHES OF.\par The government, discipline, and worship of the Established Church of Scotland are in all respects the same as those of other Presbyterian churches. According to the constitution of the Church, there is a kirksession in every parish, consisting of the minister and a body of lay elders. All the ministers within a certain district, with one lay elder from each session, constitute the Presbytery of that district. The next higher court is the Provincial Synod, which embraces several neighboring presbyteries. The highest court of all is the General Assembly. It is a representative court, consisting of 247 members and 178 elders, the greater part chosen by the presbyteries, but a considerable number of elders chosen by the town-councils and universities. It meets early in May, is presided over by LVAL\its moderator, and has the presence of a lord high commissioner, appointed by the crown, who, however, is not a member, and has no authoritative voice in the court. A "Commission of Assembly" meets in August, November, and March, consisting of the members of Assembly, and a minister named by the moderator, to attend to matters remitted to it by the Assembly, or that may arise in the intervals. In consequence of the connection with the state, there are certain peculiarities connected with the support of the ministers which it may be proper to notice. Dr. Jamieson, in his interesting sketch of the "Church of Scotland" contributed to the Cyclopaedia of Religious Denominations, thus describes these peculiarities: \emdash "The provision made for parish ministers by the law of Scotland consists of a stipend arising from a tax on land. It is raised on the principle of commuting tithes or teinds into a modified charge-the fifth of the land produce, according to a method introduced in the reign of Charles I, ratified by William III, and unalterably established by the treaty of union. To make this intelligible, we may observe that at the Reformation the teinds were appropriated by the crown, with the burden of providing for the minister. In after-times they were often bestowed as gifts on private individuals totally unconnected with the parish, and who thus came so far in place of the crown. These persons received the name of titulars, from being entitled to collect from the heritors the unappropriated teinds; but they were also bound on demand to sell to any heritor the titularship to his own teinds at nine years' purchase. From the collective land-produce of a parish the court of teinds determines how much is to be allotted for the support of the minister. This general decree having fixed the amount, a common agent, appointed by the court, proceeds to divide it proportionally among the landholders, and this division, when fully made, is sanctioned by the court. It is called a decreet of modification, and forLVAL]ms the authority or rule according to which alone the minister collects his stipend. According to this system, which has proved a very happy settlement of a quaestio vexata, the burden falls not on the farmer or tenant, as in other countries where tithing exactions are made, but on the landholder or titular of the teinds, to whom a privilege of relief is opened by having them fixed. He may value them that is, to use the words of principal Hill, 'lead a proof of their present value before the Court of Session, and the valuation, once made by authority of that court, ascertains the quantity of victual or the sum of money in the name of teind payable out of his lands in all time coming.' The advantage of this system is that it enables proprietors to know exactly the extent of the public burdens on their estate; and the teind appropriated to the maintenance of the minister or to educational and other pious uses, being sacred and inviolable, is always taken into account, and deducted in the purchase or sale of lands. But that would not be so advantageous to the minister by fixing his income at one invariable standard were it not that provision is made for an augmentation of stipend every twenty years in parishes where there are free teinds. This is done by the minister instituting a process before the judges of the Court of Session. who act as commissioners for the plantation of kirks and valuation of teinds; and in this process the act of 1808 requires that he shall summon not only the heritors of the parish, but also the moderator and clerk of presbytery as parties. In the event of the minister being able to prove a great advance in the social and agricultural state of the parish, the judges grant his application, allocating some additional chalders; but where the arguments pleaded appear to them unsatisfactory, they give a small addition, or refuse altogether. In many parishes, however, from the teinds being exhausted, ministers had no prospect of augmentation in the ordinary way; but redress was affordLVAL^ed through the liberality of Mr. Percival's government in 1810, who used his influence in procuring an act of Parliament to be passed according to which all stipends in the Establishment should, out of the exchequer, be made up to \'a3150. This, though but a poor and inadequate provision for men of a liberal profession, was felt and gratefully received at the time as a great boon. But such is the mutability of human society that these stipends, which in 1810 formed the minimum, are now greatly superior to many which at the same period were considered, for Scotland, rich benefices; but which, being wholly paid in grain, have, through the late agrarian law, fallen far below that standard. The incomes of city ministers are paid wholly in money. Besides the stipend, every parish minister has a right to a manse or parsonage-house, garden, and offices-the style as well as the extent of accommodation being generally proportioned to the value of the benefice and the character of tie neighborhood. According to law, the glebe consists of four acres of arable land, although, in point of fact, it generally exceeds that measure; and, besides, most ministers have a grass glebe, sufficient for the support of a horse and two cows. All these, by a late decision of the Court of Session, are exempt from poor-rates and similar public burdens. Ministers in royal burghs are entitled to manses only."\par The statistics of the Established Church of Scotland vary very slightly from year to year. The number of parish churches was in 1877, 1222. In addition to these there are forty-two Parliamentary churches, and a considerable number of chapels of ease and quoad sacra churches, which, under a scheme efficiently organized by the Rev. Prof. Robertson, are in course of being endowed and erected into new parishes in the terms of Sir James Graham's Act, passed in 1846. Altogether there are about 1500 congregations and 1384 ministers.\par The following are the chief missionary and other benevolent undertakings of the Church:\par LVAL_1. The Home Mission Scheme. \emdash It has three departments:\par (1.) Church Extension. Local efforts in places requiring additional church accommodation are supplemented by grants from the funds of the scheme. In 1876, thirty-three churches, providing nearly 32,000 sittings, were thus aided.\par (2.) Mission Churches, designed to be centers of mission work in destitute localities or in the more populous parishes of Scotland. These churches or chapels number ninety-three, with upwards of 22,000 worshippers. The Home Mission Committee insist that they shall be served with invariable regularity.\par (3.) Mission Stations, not having the permanent character of churches, intended as points of evangelical work among the lapsed, non-church-going, or far-scattered people. There are seventy-seven such stations supplied by licentiates, or students in divinity, or qualified evangelists. Besides these operations, aid is given in certain cases towards the employment of Scripture-readers in the Highlands and Islands. The revenue of the scheme in 1876 from church-collections and legacies amounted to \'a311,780.\par 2. Of undertakings more especially affecting the clergy of the Church may be noticed the Association for Augmenting the Smaller Livings, i.e. livings under \'a3200 per annum. For this purpose the sum of \'a37305 was reported to last General Assembly. Also the Ministers and Professors Widows Fund, to which every parish minister and every professor in the national universities is bound to subscribe. The capital sum of the fund amounts to upwards of \'a3212,000. Ministers and professors may subscribe according to one or other of four rates, viz. \'a33 3 s., \'a34 14 s. 6 d., \'a36 6 s., or \'a37 17 s. 6 d.\par 3. A report is yearly presented to the Assembly as to the condition of the Sabbath-schools in connection with the Church. Between 15,000 and 16,000 persons are engaged in the work of teaching 167,000 juvenile scholars, and upwards of 24,000 adults of both sexes.\par 4. Colonial Missions seek tLVAL`o provide means of grace for Scottish colonists in the various British dependencies and elsewhere. When the scattered communities are organized into churches-some large and influential, as in the dominion of Canada-the aid given by the Home Church is curtailed, if not wholly withdrawn. But the committee have a great sphere of labor in the ever-enlarging and developing colonial empire of Great Britain. Agents of the mission report from British Columbia, the South American continent, Fiji, New Zealand, Australia, Ceylon, India. Under the Colonial Mission are also included European stations, such as Paris and Dresden, where ministrations are maintained for the benefit of resident Presbyterians. The total income of the scheme in 1877 was upwards of \'a315,000.\par 5. Jewish Missions. \emdash The efforts put forth in connection with this mission are concentrated on Turkey and Egypt. It has agents in Constantinople, Smyrna, Alexandria, Beyrut, and Salonica. The sum of the charge on which it operates is upwards of \'a37000.\par 6. Missions to the Heathen. \emdash The scenes of these missions, comprehended under the word "Foreign Missions," are India, Africa, and China. It can scarcely, indeed, be said that a mission exists in China; but steps have been taken to originate a Christian work in that vast empire. The agency in Africa is not yet complete. A station has been formed and is partly occupied by a company of Christian artisans, headed by a medical missionary, in the Highlands of East Africa-the station having received the name of Dr. Livingstone's birthplace, Blantyre. The Indian missions retain the mixed character which Scotch missions in India have hitherto borne-educational and evangelistic. In the three great Presidency towns, the educational institutions are still maintained, and are at present in a state of efficiency. Evangelical efforts are also carried on in connection with the institutions and in native churches. In the Punjab there are stations at Sealkote, G\'fbjrat, and Wazirabad. An inLVALateresting work is also promoted among the Highlanders of India at Darjeeling, and outside the British territory an agency is maintained at Chumba, whose feature is that the mission, conducted by Europeans, is kept apart from the Church, presided over by natives. The income of these foreign missions for the year ending January, 1876, was upwards of \'a319,000.\par 7. Two other agencies may be briefly noted:\par (1.) Continental and Foreign Churches Committee. \emdash Established as the medium of communication between the churches and other Reformed churches of Christendom. It is charged with the duty of cultivating friendly relations with such churches, and administering such sums as the liberality of the Church bestows on societies and agencies abroad seeking to spread the pure Gospel of Jesus Christ. For many years the committee have been able to aid the Central Society of the French Reformed Church, and the Evangelization Commission of the Waldensian Church in Italy. From time to time it has aided other agencies. The care of certain chaplaincies on the Continent intended for the benefit of Presbyterians temporarily resident there also devolves on this committee. Its income in 1876 was \'a31205.\par (2.) The Army and Navy Chaplains Committee are entrusted with the oversight of chaplains laboring in garrison towns or at the camps. The convener of the committee communicates, in behalf of the Church, with the naval and military authorities.\par No Church in Europe has taken more prompt and energetic steps for the general diffusion of school education than the Presbyterians of Scotland. As early as 1695 it was enacted "that there be a school founded and a school-master appointed in every parish by advice of the presbyteries, and to this purpose that the heritors do, in every congregation, meet among themselves, and provide a commodious house for a school, and modify a stipend to the school-master, which shall not be under ten merks (\'a36 13 s. 4 d.) nor above twenty merks." As almost all the populaLVALbtion of the country is Presbyterian, the common-school system long sustained a parochial character. When, in 1843, the Free Church of Scotland was organized, it was resolved to erect schools in connection with the congregations of the Free Church, and the educational scheme which in consequence sprang up was co-extensive with the parochial system of the Established Church. In 1873, of 2108 schools inspected by the government inspectors, 1379 belonged to the Established and 577 to the Free Church; while of non-Presbyterian schools there were eighty-six belonging to the Episcopal and sixty-six to the Catholic Church. The introduction of the new national system of education has in a great measure superseded the operations of the educational scheme of the Church of Scotland. Few schools now remain in relation to it. The care of the committee is now chiefly occupied with providing religious instruction in all schools desiring it, and giving grants for excellence in religious instruction. The Scottish universities of Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Aberdeen are in organic connection with the Church of Scotland by means of theological professorships; while at St. Andrew's an entire college, St. Mary's, is appointed solely to the teaching of theology and the languages connected with it. The theological institutions are the theological faculties of the several national universities. The number of professors is, at Edinburgh, four; Glasgow, four; St. Andrew's, three; Aberdeen, four. Students, 198. Students of divinity are required to attend a full course of arts at the university, and three years more at the Divinity Hall. The sessions in both cases last about five months. Students in this and the other Presbyterian churches of Scotland have often assistance from bursaries or scholarships, which are allotted chiefly by competition. See Hetherington, Hist. of the Church of Scotland; M'Crie, Lives of Knox and Melville; id. Sketches of Church History, and Review of Scott; Fessenden, Encycl. of Relig. Knowledge; Cyclop. ofLVALc Relig. Denominations (Lond. and Glasg.); Wilson, Presb. Hist. Almanac; Schem, Ecclesiastes Year Book. \par 2. UNITED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH. \emdash In 1732 the Rev. Ebenezer Erskine, as retiring moderator of the Synod of Stirling and Perth, preached a sermon on Christ as the Cornerstone, in which he sharply inveighed against the corruptions and abuses that had crept into the Scottish Church. His sermon gave great offence, and incurred the censure of the synod. He appealed to the General Assembly, who condemned and rebuked him. Upon entering his protest, they handed his case over to the Commission. The Commission summarily suspended Erskine and three other ministers \emdash Wilson, Moncrieff, and Fisher, who had joined in his protest cast them out of ministerial communion. The four brethren, deeming this treatment unconstitutional and unscriptural, immediately organized themselves into a presbytery, to which they gave the name of the Associate Presbytery, and published their testimony. or vindication. of their secession. The next Assembly showed a disposition to make concessions, but the seceders refused to listen. How far they were right in this has been debated. That they were not satisfied to return to the bosom of the Establishment is clear, for they went on to gather congregations and appoint a professor of theology; and, in consequence of their activity and the popular sympathy, they increased rapidly. The Assembly next proceeded to harsher measures, and in 1740 deposed the seceding ministers, now eight in number. The doors of the churches were closed against them, and some of them, as Moncrieff, preached all winter in the open air. Great difficulty was found in procuring sites for houses of worship. Still they grew, and in 1745 the presbytery expanded into a synod with thirty settled congregations and sixteen vacancies. But now a dissension arose about the burgess oath, and in 1747 they split into two synods. The General Associate Synod, or Anti-burghers, denounced the oath as sanctioning the LVALdEstablishment with all its corruptions; the Associate Synod maintained that it only referred to the true Protestant faith, in opposition to popery. After seventy-three years of separation, during which each throve and sent offshoots to other parts of the world, both branches reunited (a few only standing aloof) in 1820, under the name of the United Secession Church, when the new body embraced 373 congregations.\par The Relief Church was the result of Mr. Gillespie's deposition by the General Assembly in 1752. He had refused to assist in intruding an obnoxious presentee over the parish of Inverkeithing. After his deposition he continued to preach in Dunfermline, but labored alone for several years. At length, being joined by Messrs. Boston and Colier, the three constituted the Relief Presbytery. Soon after another presbytery was necessary, and in 1775 (Eadie says 1773) the two met at a synod. It was characteristic of the Relief Church to maintain free communion with all true Christians, and to disapprove of the very principle of establishments. They founded a divinity hall, and increased to seven presbyteries, 114 congregations, and 45,000 communicants.\par These two bodies, the United Secession and the Relief, having so much in common, for some time contemplated a union, which was at last consummated in Edinburgh, May 10, 1847, in Tanfield Hall, Canonmills. They took the title of the United Presbyterian Church. In common parlance, they are often familiarly spoken of as the "U. P. Church." They constitute a very popular and powerful body of Christians in Scotland, reporting, as the statistics of May, 1876: number of congregations, 620; of elders, 5075; members, 190,242; Sunday-school teachers, 12,129; Sunday-school scholars, 92,502; total income for 1875, \'a3419,965. In the synod held at Edinburgh May 11, 1876, its sanction was given by a vote of 373 to 45 for the union of the United Presbyterian congregations in England with the English Presbyterian Church; and an animated discussion took place in LVALeadvocacy of separation of the Church from the State. The following are the articles of the basis as adopted by the two synods:\par "1. That the Word of God contained in the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments is the only rule of faith and practice.\par "2 That the Westminster Confession of Faith, and the Larger and Shorter Catechisms, are the confession and catechisms of this Church, and contain the authorized exhibition of the sense in which we understand the Holy Scriptures, it being always understood that we do not approve of anything in these documents which teaches, or may be supposed to teach, compulsory or persecuting and intolerant principles in religion.\par "3. That Presbyterian government, without any superiority of office to that of a teaching presbyter, and in a due subordination of Church courts, which is founded on and agreeable to the Word of God, is the government of this Church.\par "4. That the ordinances of worship shall he administered in the United Church as they have been in both bodies of which it is formed; and that the Westminster Directory of Worship continue to be regarded as a compilation of excellent rules.\par "5. That the term of membership is a credible profession of the faith of Christ as held by this Church-a profession made with intelligence, and justified by a corresponding character and deportment.\par "6. That with regard to those ministers and sessions who think that the second section of the twenty-sixth chapter of the Westminster Confession of Faith authorizes free communion (that is, not loose or indiscriminate communion, but the occasional admission to fellowship in the Lord's Supper of persons respecting whose Christian character satisfactory evidence has been obtained, though belonging to other religious denominations), they shall en)joy what they enjoyed in their separate communions \emdash the right of acting on their conscientious convictions.\par "7. That the election of office-bearers of this Church, in its several congregations, belongs,LVALf by the authority of Christ, exclusively to the members in full communion.\par "8. That this Church solemnly recognizes the obligation to hold forth, as well as to hold fast, the doctrine and laws of Christ; and to make exertions for the universal diffusion of the blessings of his Gospel at home and abroad.\par "9. That as the Lord hath ordained that they who preach the Gospel, should live of the Gospel; that they who are taught in the Word should communicate to him that teacheth in all good things: that they who a e strong should help the weak; and that, having" freely received, they should freely give the Gospel to those who are destitute of it \emdash this Church asserts the obligation and the privilege of its members, influenced by regard to the authority of Christ, to support and extend, by voluntary contentions, the ordinances of the Gospel.\par "10. That the respective bodies of which this Church is composed, without requiring from each other an approval of the steps of procedure by their fathers, or interfering with the right of private judgment in reference to these, unite in regarding as still valid the reasons on which they have hitherto \emdash maintained their state of secession and separation from the judicatories of the Established Church, as expressed in the authorized documents of the respective bodies; and in maintaining the lawfulness and obligation of separation from ecclesiastical bodies in which dangerous error is tolerated, or the discipline of the Church or the rights of her ministers or members are disregarded.\par "The United Church, in their present most solemn circumstances, join in expressing their grateful acknowledgment to the great Head of the Church for the measure of spiritual good which he has accomplished by them in their separate state, their deep sense of the many imperfections and sills which have marked their ecclesiastical management, and their determined resolution, in dependence on the promised grace of their Lord, to apply more faithfully the great priLVALgnciples of Church-fellowship, to be more watchful in reference to admission and discipline, that the purity and efficiency of their congregations may be promoted, and the great end of their existence as a collective body may be answered with respect to all within its pale land to all without it, whether members of other denominations or 'the world lying in wickedness.'\par "And, in fine, the United Church regard with a feeling of brotherhood all the faithful followers of Christ, aid shall endeavor to maintain the unity of the whole body of Christ by a readiness to co-operate with all its members in all things in which they are agreed."\par The United Presbyterian Church is a voluntary Church. The doctrine of its voluntary condition is not formally contained in any portion of her standards, but it is distinctly implied. She holds to the theology of the Westminster Confession of Faith, and of the Larger and Shorter Catechisms, but she objects to every part of the Westminster Confession "which teaches, or is supposed to teach, compulsory or persecuting and intolerant principles in religion." "Her creed," says Eadie, "is that the exalted Jesus is the only King and Head of his Church, and that this headship wholly supersedes the patronage and endowment of the Church by civil rulers. She believes, indeed, that Christ is King of nations, and that therefore nations should serve God, and that all rulers and magistrates are bound to glorify him in their respective spheres and stations. But such service and such glorification of God must be in harmony with the revealed mind of Christ; and the duty of endowing Christianity nowhere appears among the statutes of the New Testament States which establish Christianity venture beyond divine enactment, and contravene the spirituality of that kingdom which 'is not of this world.' It is plain, too, from recent events in Scotland and England, that neither purity nor freedom can exist as it ought in an established Church. Spiritual independence can flourish only in a ChurLVALhch which has no connection with the State." Ebenezer Erskine said in his day, "There is a great difference to be made between the Church of Scotland and the Church of Christ in Scotland; for I reckon that the last is to a great extent drawn into the wilderness by the first; and since God in his adorable providence has led us into the wilderness with her, I judge it our duty to tarry with her for a while there, and to prefer her afflictions to all the advantages of a legal establishment." Christ's house, according to Ebenezer Erskine, is "the freest society in the world." It should bear no trammels, and it bore none for 300 years. Accordingly the United Presbyterian Church is a free Church, and will not submit to any law of patronage. The Relief Church had its origin in this grievance; and the Secession Church, while it had a special struggle for doctrine, no less distinctly vindicated the rights of the people. Pastors are therefore chosen by the united voice of the members in full communion; for Christ's ordinances are meant solely for Christ's people. The Presbytery exercises no control whatever over the popular suffrage. It sends one of its members to moderate in the call, and sees that the call is gone about in a regular way. No canvassing is allowed, and the whole work of the Presbytery is, in fact, to guard and preserve purity of election. The Presbytery sustains the call after being convinced- that there is nothing to vitiate it as a free expression of the mind of the people. The minister so called may either be one who is or has been in a charge, or he may be what is called a probationer. The vacant churches are supplied by these probationers \emdash a body of men who have finished the educational curriculum appointed by the Church, been examined by their respective presbyteries, and licensed as persons qualified to preach the Gospel, and fit, if they shall be called, to take the pastoral charge of a congregation. The probationers are thus a body of lay preachers, authorized candidates for theLVALi ministry. They are sent among the vacant churches without partiality and by rotation, that their gifts may be tried, and sometimes they are located for months together at a missionary station. When a probationer is called, and accepts the call, he appears before the Presbytery in whose bounds the Church calling him is situated, and preaches what are called trial discourses. Such appearance in the Presbytery on the part of the pastor elect is to win the confidence of his brethren. After all the prescribed trials have been gone through and sustained, a day for the ordination is fixed. One of the ministers of the Presbytery is appointed to preside and ordain, and another is appointed to preach. An edict*1 is at the same time appointed to be publicly served in the congregation by the officiating minister or preacher at least ten days before the day of ordination. Upon the day fixed, the Presbytery meets at the appointed time and place, and is constituted by the moderator. The officer is then sent to the assembled congregation to intimate that the Presbytery has met, and requiring all who have any valid objections to the ordination being proceeded with immediately to appear before the Presbytery and state them. The officer having returned, and no objectors appearing, the Presbytery then proceeds to the place of worship. If objections are made, they must be decided upon before the ordination takes place. After sermon, the moderator gives a brief narrative of the different steps of procedure regarding the call. He then calls on the candidate for ordination to stand up, and in presence of the congregation puts to him the questions of the formula. But before proposing the ninth question, he asks the members of the congregation to signify their adherence to the call by holding up their right hands. These steps being taken, the moderator comes down to the platform, where the candidate kneels, and, surrounded by the other brethren of the Presbytery, he engages in solemn prayer, and towards the conclusion of the LVALjprayer, or after it is concluded, he, by the imposition of hands (in which all the brethren of the Presbytery join), ordains him to the office of the holy ministry, and to the pastoral inspection of the congregation by whom he has been chosen and regularly called, commending him for countenance and success to the grace of God in all the duties incumbent upon him as a minister of the Gospel. After the ordination is thus completed, the members of Presbytery give to the newly ordained pastor the right hand of fellowship, and appropriate addresses are then delivered to minister and people. These services being concluded, the moderator accompanies the newly ordained pastor to some convenient place, where the members of the congregation may acknowledge him as their minister by taking him by the right hand. The Presbytery then returns to its place of meeting, when the newly ordained minister's name is entered on the roll, and he takes his seat as a member of the Presbytery, on which the commissioners for the congregation crave extracts. A member of Presbytery is also appointed to constitute the session of the congregation and introduce the minister to his seat there. The whole procedure of the dar is entered on the Presbytery's record.\par *1: The form of edict is as follows: "Whereas the Presbytery of \emdash of the United Presbyterian Church have received a call from this congregation, addressed to A. B., preacher (or minister) of the Gospel, to be their minister, and the said call has been sustained as a regular Gospel call, and been accepted by the said A. B., and he has undergone trials for ordination; and whereas the said Presbytery, having judged the said A. B. qualified for the ministry of the Gospel and the pastoral charge of this congregation, have resolved to proceed to his ordination on the day of , unless something occur which may reasonably impede it. Notice is hereby given to all concerned that if they, or any of them, have anything, to object why the said A. B. should not be ordained pastorLVALk of this congregation, they may repair to the Presbytery which is to meet at on the said day of with certification that, if no valid objection be then made, the Presbytery will proceed without further delay. By order of the Presbytery. A. B., Moderator. C. D., Clerk."\par The formula put to ministers on their ordination is as follows:\par "1. Do you believe the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments to be the Word of God, and the only rule of faith and practice?\par "2. Do you acknowledge the Westminster Confession of Faith, and the Larger and Shorter Catechisms, as an exhibition of the sense in which you understand the Holy Scriptures; it being understood that you are not required to approve of anything in these documents which teaches, or is supposed to teach, compulsory or persecuting and intolerant principles in religion?\par "3. Are you persuaded that the Lord Jesus Christ, the only King and Head of the Church, has therein appointed a government distinct from and subordinate to civil government? And do you acknowledge the Presbyterian form of government, as authorized and acted on in this Church, to be founded on and agreeable to the Word of God?\par "4. Do you approve of the constitution of the United Presbyterian Church as exhibited in the Basis of Union and while cherishing a spirit of brotherhood towards all the faithful followers of Christ, do you engage to seek the purity, edification, peace, and extension of this Church?\par "5. Are zeal for the glory of God, love to the Lord Jesus Christ, and a desire to save souls, and not worldly interests or expectations, so far as you know your own heart, your great motives and chief inducements to enter into the office of the holy ministry?\par "6. Have you used any undue methods, by yourself or others, to obtain the call of this Church?\par "[The members of the Church being requested to stand up, let this question be put to them:\par "Do you, the members of this Church, testify your adherence to the call which you have given to Mr. A. B. LVALlto be your minister? And do you receive him with all gladness, and promise to provide for him suitable maintenance, and to give him all due respect, subjection, and encouragement in the Lord?\par "An opportunity will here be given to the members of the Church of signifying their assent to this by holding up their right hand.]\par "7. Do you adhere to your acceptance of the call to become minister of this Church?\par "8. Do you engage, in the strength of the grace that is h in Christ Jesus, to live a holy and circumspect life, to rule well your own house, and faithfully, diligently, and cheerfully to discharge all the parts of the ministerial work to the edifying of the body of Christ?\par "9. Do you promise to give conscientious attendance on the courts of the United Presbyterian Church, to be subject to them in the Lord, to take a due interest in their proceedings, and to study the things which make for peace?\par "10. All these things you profess and promise through grace, as you shall be answerable at the coming of the Lord Jesus Christ with all his saints, and as you would be found in that happy company?"\par The Church has one theological institution, with a staff of seven professors, including the principal. The number of students for 1876-77 was 107, and the average for the ten preceding years 136. Students have to pass through a full course of arts at the university before joining the theological hall and the theological curriculum is over three years, with a session each year from the beginning of November to the middle of April. Very recently a change was made in the management of the theological hall, with a view to the more efficient training of the students. It was agreed that the means of maintaining the hall should be partly by a capital fund and partly by annual contributions, and the capital fund of \'a340,000 has already been nearly realized. In connection with the theological hall there is a scheme of scholarships, and a committee who have charge of the distribution of these oLVALmn competitive examination of applicants. In 1876 eleven special scholarships were awarded of the aggregate value of \'a3275; and from the ordinary fund two of \'a320 each, ten of \'a315, and forty-one of \'a310. In 1876 the number of young people under religious instruction in Sabbath-schools and Bible classes was 103,750.\par The following are among the other undertakings of the United Presbyterian Church:\par Home Mission Fund. \emdash This fund is under the direction more immediately of the Home Committee of the Board of Missions. Its object is to supplement the stipends of the weaker congregations, to support missionary stations, to aid in the support of catechists, and maintain a scheme of home evangelization.\par By the Stipend Augmentation Scheme and its Surplus Fund, including arrangements which have been made with certain congregations in reference to allowances for house-rent where manse accommodation has not been provided, the following general results in regard to the stipends of ministers for the year 1877 have been obtained:\par 104 Stipends have been raised to \'a3200 per annum, with manse or allowance for rent of \'a320.\par \par 13 Stipends are under the former minimum of 157 10 s.\par All the other Stipends in the Church are upwards of \'a3200 per annum.\par In evangelistic effort and home evangelization \'a35047 were expended in 1876 under the direction of the Home Committee of the Board of Missions.\par The Aged and Infirm Ministers Fund has a capital fund of \'a335,593, with a reserve fund of \'a31000, and provides an annuity of not less than \'a350 per annum to aged and infirm ministers and missionaries of the Church.\par Manse Fund. \emdash For this scheme \'a352,772 have been raised by subscriptions and donations up to December, 1876, and \'a349,449 expended up to April, 1877, in grants to 232 congregations; and the conditions on which these grants were offered required the congregations to raise not less than \'a390,341, as it is stipulated where grants are given tLVALnhat the manse shall be free of debt when the last installment of the grant has been paid.\par The Foreign Mission Fund is to defray the expenses of the foreign missionary operations of the Church. The missions supported out of the find, nine in number, are situated in Jamaica, Trinidad, Old Calabar, Kaffraria, India, China, Spain, Japan, and Algeria. In these nine missions there are 61 ordained missionaries, 7 European medical missionaries, 2 European male teachers, 21 European female teachers, 22 ordained native missionaries, 91 native evangelists, 212 schoolmasters, 44 native female teachers, 86 other agents, 84 principal stations, 13-l out-stations, 13.212 communicants, 2033 inquirers, 197 week-day schools, 13,387 pupils, with a total educated agency of 384. The income of the Foreign Mission Fund for 1887 was \'a356,872 17 s. 4 d.\par Under the direction of the synod, the Foreign Mission Board voted, during 1876, the following grants, viz.:\par (1)\tab To the Union of Evangelical Churches of France, \'a3500;\par (2)\tab to the Evangelical Society of Lyons, \'a3150;\par (3)\tab to the Evangelical Society of Geneva, \'a3250;\par (4)\tab to the Belgian Missionary Society, \'a3200;\par (5)\tab for evangelical work in Bohemia. \'a3150;\par (6)\tab to the Waldensian Church, \'a3350 (including \'a3100 towards the salary of the Rev. J. Simpson Kay of Palermo);\par (7)\tab to the Free Church of Italy, \'a3100;\par (8)\tab for evangelical work at Aix-les-Bains, Savoy, \'a350;\par (9)\tab to the French Canadian Missionary Society, \'a3100;\par (10)\tab for Rev. Ferdinand Cesar's work in Moravia, \'a375;\par (11)\tab for outfit and passage of two ministers to Australia, \'a3340;\par (12)\tab to Rev. David Sidney, Napier, New Zealand, for salary of evangelist (three years), \'a3150; and\par (13)\tab salary of Rev. Dr. Laws, of the Nyassa mission of the Free Church.\par These grants amount in all to \'a32715. Besides these special grants made directly by the Foreign Committee, the following speciLVALal contributions by individuals were sent through the hands of the synod's treasurer:\par (1)\tab\'a31530 from the Theological Hall Students' Missionary Society, for pastor Yakopian's work in Cesarea, Cappadocia;\par (2)\tab\'a35 for Protestant churches in Bithynia;\par (3)\tab\'a31 6 s. 3 rd. for Mount Lebanon Schools;\par (4)\tab\'a3100 for Protestant Church in Bohemia;\par (5)\tab\'a350 5 s. for Rev. F. Cesar's work in Moravia;\par (6)\tab\'a320 for the Union of Evangelical Churches in France;\par (7)\tab\'a345 4 s. 4 d. for evangelical work at Aixles-Bains, Savoy;\par (8)\tab\'a344 for Christian work in Paris;\par (9)\tab\'a325 for Reformed Church in the Netherlands;\par (10)\tab\'a3131 2 s. 4 d. for the Waldensian Church;\par (11)\tab\'a350 for the Free Italian Church;\par (12)\tab\'a34 2 s. for Rev. J. S. Kay, Palermo;\par (13)\tab\'a35 for Mrs. Boyce's Orphanage, Bordighera;\par (14)\tab\'a333 6 s. 8 d. for Freedmen's Missions Aid Society; and\par (15)\tab\'a3606 18 s. 7 d. for the Agra Medical Mission (Dr. Valentine's scheme).\par These donations, destined by the donors for the objects specified, amounted in all to \'a32631 5 s. 2 nd., which, added to the grants administered by the Board-viz., \'a32715-make the total contribution of the Church during 1876, for objects outside the Foreign Mission, \'a35346 5 s. 2 nd. The ordinary congregational income of the Church for the year 1876 was \'a3233,114; the missionary and benevolent income \'a382,927; and the benevolent income not congregational \'a362,226 -the total, including the English congregations, up to June, 1876, being \'a3406,204. See Hetherington, Hist. of the Church of Scotland; Cyclop. of Religious Denominations (Lond. and Glasgow); Wilson, Presb. Hist. Almanac. See UNITED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH.\par \cf1\f1\fs29\par \fs29\par } LVAL [p{\rtf1\ansi\ansicpg1252\deff0{\fonttbl{\f0\froman\fprq2\fcharset0 Georgia;}{\f1\fnil\fcharset0 Georgia;}} {\colortbl ;\red0\green0\blue0;} {\*\generator Riched20 5.40.11.2210;}\viewkind4\uc1\pard\lang1033\f0\fs28 3. FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND. \emdash This large and useful body of Christians, now numbering nearly a million of people, was organized into a separate religious denomination in May, 1843. The circumstances which led to its formation as a Church distinct from the Establishment have already been detailed in a previous article. The conflict which at length terminated in the Disruption had its origin in the two reforming acts passed by the General Assembly of 1834, the one of which, the Act on Calls, asserted the principle of non-intrusion, and the other, usually called the Chapel Act, asserted the right of the Church to determine who should administer the government of Christ's house. Both of these acts gave rise to lawsuits before the civil tribunals, thus bringing into discussion the whole question as to the terms of the connection between the Church and the State. As the various processes went forward in the courts of law, it became quite plain to many, both of the Scottish clergy and laity, that attempts were made by the civil courts to coerce the courts of the Church in matters spiritual. Every encroachment of this kind they were determined to resist, as being contrary to the laws and constitution of the Church of Scotland, as well as an infringement on the privileges secured to her by the Act of Security and Treaty of Union.\par Matters were evidently fast hastening onward to a crisis, and in the Assembly of 1842 a Claim of Rights was agreed upon to be laid before the Legislature, setting forth the grievances of which the Church complained in consequence of the usurpations of the courts of law, and declaring the terms on which alone she would remain in connection with the State. This important document was adopted by a majority of 131. The claim, however, which it contained, was pronounLVALqced by government to be "unreasonable," and intimation was distinctly made that the government "could not advise her majesty to acquiesce in these demands." This reply on the part of the supreme branch of the legislature was decisive, and put an end to all hope of averting the impending catastrophe. At the next meeting of Assembly, accordingly, the moderator, instead of constituting the court in the usual form, read a solemn protest, which he laid upon the table, and withdrew, followed by all the clerical and lay members of Assembly by whom it was subscribed. This document protests against the then recent decisions of the courts of law on the following grounds:\par "1. That the courts of the Church by law established, and members thereof, are liable to be coerced by the civil courts in the exercise of their spiritual functions; and in particular in the admission to the office of the holy ministry, and the constitution of the past moral relation, and that they are subject to be compelled to intrude ministers on reclaiming congregations in opposition to the fundamental principles of the Church, and their views of the Word of God, and to the liberties of Christ's people.\par "2. That the said civil courts have power to interfere with and interdict the preaching of the Gospel and administration of ordinances as authorized and enjoined by the Church courts of the Establishment.\par "3. That the said civil courts have power to suspend spiritual censures pronounced by the Church courts of the Establishment against ministers and probationers of the Church, and to interdict their execution as to spiritual effects, functions, and privileges.\par "4. That the said civil courts have power to reduce and set aside the sentences of the Church courts of the Establishment deposing ministers from the office of the holy ministry and depriving probationers of their license to preach the Gospel, with reference to the spiritual status, functions, and privileges of such ministers and probationers \emdash restoring themLVALr to the spiritual office and status of which the Church courts had deprived them.\par "5. That the said civil courts have power to determine on the right to sit as members of the supreme and other judicatories of the Church by law established, and to issue interdicts against sitting and voting therein, irrespective of the judgment and determination of the said judicatories.\par "6. That the said civil courts have power to supersede the majority of a Church court of the Establishment, in regard to the exercise of its spiritual functions as a Church court, and to authorize the minority to exercise the said functions, in opposition to the court itself, and to the superior judicatories of the Establishment.\par "7. That the said civil courts have power to stay processes of discipline pending before courts of the Church by law established, and to interdict such courts from proceeding therein.\par "8. That no pastor of a congregation can be admitted into the Church courts of the Establishment, and allowed to rule, as well as to teach, agreeably to the institution of the office by the Head of the Church, nor to sit in any of the judicatories of the Church, inferior or supremeand that no additional provision call be made for the exercise of spiritual discipline among the members of the Church, though not affecting any patrimonial interests, and no alteration introduced in the state of pastoral superintendence and spiritual discipline in any parish, without the sanction of a civil court.\par "All which jurisdiction and power on the part of the said civil courts severally above specified, whatever proceeding may have given occasion to its exercise, is, in our opinion, in itself inconsistent with Christian liberty, and with the authority which the Head of the Church hath conferred on the Church alone."\par The document goes on to protest that in the circumstances in which the Church was thereby placed, "a free Assembly of the Church of Scotland, by law established, cannot at this time beholden, and that anLVALs Assembly in accordance with the fundamental principles of the Church cannot be constituted in connection with the State without violating the conditions which must now, since the rejection by the Legislature of the Church's Claim of Right, be held to be the conditions of the Establishment." At the close of this solemn protest, the subscribers claim to themselves the liberty of abandoning their connection with the State, while retaining all the privileges and exercising all the functions of a section of Christ's visible Church. "And finally," they declare, "while firmly asserting the right and duty of the civil magistrate to maintain and support an establishment of religion in accordance with God's Word, and reserving to ourselves and our successors to strive by all lawful means, as opportunity shall in God's good providence be offered, to secure the performance of this duty agreeably to the Scriptures, and in implement of the statutes of the kingdom of Scotland and the obligations of the Treaty of Union as understood by us and our ancestors, but acknowledging that we do not hold ourselves at liberty to retain the benefits of the Establishment while we cannot comply with the conditions now to be deemed thereto attached \emdash we protest that, in the circumstances in which we are placed, it is, and shall be, lawful for us, and such other commissioners chosen to the Assembly appointed to have been this day holden as may concur with us, to withdraw to a separate place of meeting, for the purpose of taking steps for ourselves and all who adhere to us \emdash maintaining with us the Confession of Faith, and standards of the Church of Scotland as heretofore understood-for separating in an orderly way from the Establishment, and thereupon adopting such measures as may be competent to us, in humble dependence on God's grace and the aid of the Holy Spirit, for the advancement of his glory, the extension of the Gospel of our Lord and Savior, and the administration of the affairs of Christ's house, according LVALtto his holy Word; and we do now, for the purpose foresaid, withdraw accordingly, humbly and solemnly acknowledging the hand of the Lord in the things which have come upon us, because of our manifold sins, and the sills of this Church and nation; but, at the same time, with an assured conviction that we are not responsible for any consequences that may follow from this our enforced separation from an Establishment which we loved and prized, through interference with conscience, the dishonor done to Christ's crown, and the rejection of his sole and supreme authority as King in his Church." This document, embodying the protest against the wrongs inflicted on the Church of Scotland by the civil power, was signed by no fewer than 203 members of Assembly. When the moderator had finished the reading of the protest, he retired, followed by a large majority of the clerical and lay members of the court; and the procession, joined by a large body of ministers, elders, and others who adhered to their principles, moved in solemn silence to Tanfield Hall, a large building situated at the northern extremity of the city, in the valley formed by the Water of Leith. Here was constituted the Free Church of Scotland, which, while renouncing the benefits of an Establishment, continues to adhere to the standards and to maintain the doctrine, discipline worship, and government of the Church of Scotland. Dr. Chalmers was chosen as their first moderator, and the ordinary business was proceeded with according to the usual forms. On Tuesday, the 23 d of May, the ministers and professors, to the number of 474, solemnly subscribed the Deed of Demission, formally renouncing all claim to the benefices which they had held in connection with this Establishment, declaring them to be vacant, and consenting to their being dealt with as such. Thus, by a regular legal instrument the ministers completed their separation from the Establishment; and the Free Church of Scotland assumed the position of a distinct ecclesiastical denomination, hLVALuolding the same doctrines, maintaining the same ecclesiastical framework, and observing the same forms of worship as had been received and observed in the National Church. In fact, they had abandoned nothing but the endowments of the State, and even these they had abandoned, not from any change in their views as to the lawfulness of a Church Establishment, but solely because in their view the State had altered the terms on which the compact between the Church and the State had been originally formed.\par The Free Church, strong in the conviction that her distinctive principles were sound and scriptural, entered upon her arduous work with an humble but confiding trust in her great and glorious Head. In the course of her history she has become united with two other bodies. In 1852 the majority of the Original Seceders, with whom the name of Dr. Thomas M'Crie, father and son, was so honorably connected, joined the Free Church; and in 1876 a union was formed with the Reformed Presbyterian Church, consisting of thirty-six ministers and thirty-six congregations. The General Assembly of the Free Church consists of 730 members, half being ministers and half ruling elders, and all appointed by the presbyteries. Each Presbytery returns one third of its ministers, and an equal number of ruling elders. The temporal affairs of each congregation are managed by a body called "The Deacons' Court." This court is composed of the minister, the ruling elders, and a body of deacons chosen, like the elders, by the members of the congregation. The spiritual interests of each congregation are attended to by the kirk-session, consisting only of the minister and elders.\par In preparation for the new position in which the Church would be placed when deprived of state support, Dr. Chalmers had made arrangements some months previous to the Assembly of 1843 for establishing associations throughout the country with the view of collecting funds for the support of the ministry. With such energy and activity had these preparations LVALvbeen carried forward that before the day of the Disruption came 687 separate associations had been formed in all parts of the country. So extensive and ardent was the sympathy felt with the movement, not in Scotland only, but throughout the kingdom, and even throughout the world, that funds were liberally contributed from all quarters in support of the cause, and at the close of the first year of the history of the Free Church her income amounted to the munificent sum of \'a3366,719 14 s. 3 rd. Nor has the source of her supply afforded the slightest symptoms of being exhausted even after the lapse of thirty-five years. On the contrary, she raised \'a310,250,000 in her first thirty years and has now an annual income of over \'a3500,000. The Sustentation Fund for the support of the ministry reached in 1877 the gratifying sum of \'a3172,641 13 s. 3 rd., yielding an annual salary to nearly 800 ministers of about \'a3150 each. The Building Fund for the erection of churches and manses amounted in 1877 to \'a341.179 2 s. 0 \'bc d. This year (1878) a Church Extension scheme of \'a3100,000 has been entered upon with spirit. The Congregational Fund, composed of ordinary collections at the church-doors on Sabbaths, and a great part of which goes to supplement the ministers' stipends, is \'a394,481 19 s. 6 d. The Fund for Missions in 1887-8 amounted to \'a383,813. There are various other objects connected with the Free Church which it is unnecessary to detail, but the sum total of the contributions for the last year was \'a3565,195 10 s. 4 d., an amount which plainly indicates that its friends and supporters are still animated with an intense and undiminished attachment to the principles on which this peculiar section of the Christian Church is based. Upwards of 800 churches have been reared by the liberality of her people, who are calculated to amount to somewhere about 1,000,000. To the large majority of the churches, manses, or parsonage-houses, have also been added. The Free Church has established a divinity LVALwschool in Edinburgh, called the New College, which was completed at a cost approaching \'a340,000, is provided with a more complete staff of professors than any similar institution in Scotland, and with more effectual means of training an educated ministry than is to be found elsewhere in Great Britain. The Free Church has also built a divinity hall in Aberdeen, and a third in Glasgow. The number of theological students in attendance on these colleges amounts in 1878 to 230.\par In connection with the Free Church, a fund was instituted in 1848 for Aged and Infirm Ministers, which already exceeds \'a339,000. In addition to the home ministry, which in 1878 numbered 1059, there are nearly 300 settled ministers belonging to this Church in the different departments of the colonial field.\par The Widows and Orphans Funds are chiefly made up of yearly contributions (compulsory) from each minister otf\'a35 to the Widows and \'a32 to the Orphans fund. At present the fund gives an annuity of \'a342 to each widow and \'a315 to each child under eighteen. Larger sums are given to the children when their mother is dead. The accumulated fund of the two schemes is upwards of \'a3224,000. There is a society for sons and daughters of the clergy, not under the General Assembly, designed to aid ministers in the education of their families. In 1876 it paid \'a31758 in 125 grants, from \'a310 to \'a318 each.\par The Home Mission and Church Extension Scheme. Its purpose is to keep stations supplied by preachers or catechists in thinly peopled districts; also to foster missions in mining and manufacturing localities, and other populous places, and form them into regular charges; to aid such charges until they are taken on the equal dividend platform to maintain lay evangelists, and send out ministerial evangelists from time to time; and to encourage the employment of students and others as missionaries in necessitous districts in large towns. To encourage ministers of experience to undertake mission congregations in populLVALxous places, grants of \'a3200 a year are given for a limited time; the grant diminishing gradually from year to year, till it is extinguished. In other cases the grants are smaller. The income of the fund, derived from a church-door collection thrice in two years, donations, legacies, etc., is between \'a39000 and \'a310,000 a year. This year a special Church Extension Fund, amounting to \'a3100,000, is being raised, and the greater part of it has been contributed in a few months.\par Highland Mission. \emdash This is a somewhat similar scheme, managed by a separate committee of the General Assembly, for districts of the country where Gaelic is spoken. It has a collection every second year. Its average revenue is about \'a33000.\par Church and Manse Building Fund. \emdash This is intended to help congregations in their building operations. At first it was very large, Dr. Guthrie having raised for a General Manse Fund alone about \'a3100,000, but of late years its income has been only about \'a31500. A special Building Fund is contemplated for new charges.\par Education Scheme. \emdash Till recently a large proportion of the congregations had day-schools, for which grants were given. Most of these are now absorbed in the national scheme of education. There are still some schools receiving grants; but the chief remaining part of the scheme is the Normal Schools of which there are two at Edinburgh and Glasgow. The instructors receive a salary from a general fund, which is raised by monthly contributions in all the congregations, and which is divided at the end of the year according to a certain scale, proportioned to the qualifications of the respective teachers. The number of normal students, male and female for 1876-77 was 494.\par College Scheme. \emdash This provides for the support of the three theological institutions, partly by interest of endowments and partly by an annual collection at church door, donations, legacies, etc. For 1876-77 the revenue was a total of \'a38995. There are largeLVALy Bursary and Scholarship Funds for the encouragement of students, from \'a310 to \'a3100 annually.\par Continental Scheme. \emdash For aiding stations, societies, and churches on the continent of Europe. Revenue about \'a34000.\par Colonial Scheme. \emdash For sending out ministers to the colonies and aiding colonial churches, especially in their earlier stages. Revenue about \'a34000.\par The Foreign Missions Scheme. \emdash The late Rev. Dr. Duff; the first missionary to the heathen from the Church of Scotland, went to Calcutta in 1829, and founded the India Mission of the Church of Scotland. In the previous year Dr. Wilson went to Bombay, and later, the Rev. John Anderson to Madras. In 1843 all the missionaries in India adhered to the Free Church and the old localities were continued. The Foreign Missions of the Free Church embrace India, Africa, Syria, and New Hebrides. In India, there are 6 principal and 12 branch stations in Bengal; 3 principal and 10 branch stations in Western India; 2 principal and 3 branch stations in Central India; and 1 principal and 7 branch stations in Southern India. Ill South Africa there are 6 principal and 31 branch stations in Kaffraria; 2 principal and 2 branch stations in Natal; and 1 principal station at Livingstonia. In New Hebrides, where the Reformed Presbyterians (who joined the Free Church in 1876) had their field, are 4 stations, on three islands; and in Syria, the headquarters are at Shweir, about twenty miles from Beyrut. In all, the Free Church missions embrace 107 stations, 38 European missionaries, 3 European medical missionaries, 21 European teachers, 19 European artisans, 15 native missionaries, 327 Christian teachers, and Christian laborers of various sorts. In the native churches are 3350 communicants, and about 3000 baptized adherents. The number of institutions and schools is 223, and the total number of scholars is 13,109. In the principal Indian stations many of the pupils are undergraduates of the universities. The revenue of this scheme LVALzfor 1876-77 was \'a351,217.\par Mission to Jews. \emdash This mission was begun in 1839, and in 1843, it was continued by the Free Church, all the missionaries having adhered. At present it has stations at (l) Amsterdam, (2) Prague, (3) Pesth, (4) Breslau, (5) Constantinople. The Pesth mission has been especially blessed. The amount raised for the scheme in 1876-77 was \'a313,468.\par The following is a summary of the contributions of the Free Church for 1876-77:\par Sustentation fund .....................\'a3.170,209\par Local buildings fund ..................... 86,291\par Congregational fund ....................176,290\par Missions and education ............... 104,325\par Miscellaneous ............................... 28079\par Total ........................................ 565,194\par In all its operations, indeed, whether at home or abroad, the Free Church exhibits a vitality and energetic power which have gained for it a high place among Christian churches. See SCOTLAND, CHURCHES OF.\par 4. REFORMED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH OF SCOTLAND. \emdash This is the only Church which claims to be legitimately descended from the Covenanted Church of Scotland in her period of greatest purity, that of the Second Reformation. It was that memorable period of Scottish history between 1638 and 1650 which formed the sera of the Solemn League and Covenant, of the Westminster Assembly, of the revolution which dethroned the first Charles and asserted those principles of civil and religious liberty which all enlightened Christians and statesmen are now ready with one voice to acknowledge and to admire. For their strict adherence to these principles Cameron, Cargill, and Renwick shed their blood, and to these principles the Reformed Presbyterian Church gloried in avowing her attachment. As has already been noticed in the article COVENANTERS, on the day after the execution of Charles I was known at Edinburgh, his son, Charles II, was proclaimed king at the public cross by the Committee of Estates, with this provLVAL{iso, however, that "before being admitted to the exercise of his royal power, he shall give satisfaction to this kingdom in the things that concern the security of religion according to the National Covenant and the Solemn League and Covenant." This condition or proviso was considered as so necessary to the maintenance of the constitution of the country, as well as the promotion of the great principles of civil and religious liberty, that it was enacted both by the Parliament and the General Assembly. The document issued by the latter body exhibits, in the clearest manner, their design in insisting upon the subscription by the king. It is dated July 27, 1649, and contains the following important statements: "But if his majesty, or any having or pretending power and commission from him, shall invade this kingdom upon pretext of establishing him in the exercise of his royal power-as it will be a high provocation against God to be accessory or assisting thereto, so it will be a necessary duty to resist and oppose the same. We know that many are so forgetful of the oath of God, and ignorant and careless of the interest of Jesus Christ and the Gospel, and do so little tender that which concerns his kingdom and the privileges thereof, and do so much dote upon absolute and arbitrary government for gaining their own ends, and so much malign the instruments of the work of reformation, that they would admit his majesty to the exercise of his royal power upon any terms whatsoever, though with never so much prejudice to religion and the liberties of these kingdoms, and would think it quarrel enough to make war upon all those who for conscience' sake cannot condescend thereto. But we desire all those who fear the Lord, and mind to keep their Covenant, impartially to consider these things which follow:\par "1. That as magistrates and their power is ordained of God, so are they inl the exercise thereof not to walk according to their own will, but according to the law of equity and righteousness, as being the ministLVAL|ers of God for the safety of his people; therefore a boundless and unlimited power is to be acknowledged in no king or magistrate; neither is our king to be admitted to the exercise of his power as long as he refuses to walk in the administration of the same according to this rule and the established laws of the kingdom, that his subjects may live under him a quiet and peaceable life in all godliness and honesty.\par "2. There is one mutual obligation and stipulation betwixt the king and his people; as both of them are tied to God, so each of them is tied one to another for the performance of mutual and reciprocal duties. According to this, it is statute and ordained in the eighth act of first Parliament of James VI, 'That all kings, princes, or magistrates whatsoever, holding their place, which hereafter shall happen in any time to reign and bear rule over this realm, at the time of their coronation and receipt of their princely authority, make their faithful promise by oath, in the presence of the Eternal God, that during the whole course of their lives they shall serve the same Eternal God to the utmost of their power, according as he hath required in his most holy Word, contained in the Old and New Testaments; and, according to the same Word, shall maintain the true religion of Christ Jesus, the preaching of his most holy Word, and due and right ministration of his sacraments now received and preached within this realm; and shall abolish all false religion contrary to the same; and shall rule the people committed to their charge according to the will and the command of God revealed in his Word, and according to the laudable laws and constitutions received within this realm; and shall procure to the utmost of their power to the Kirk of God, and the whole Christian people, true and perfect peace in all time coming, and thus justice and equity be kept to all creatures without exception;' which oath was sworn first by king James VI, and afterwards by king Charles at his coronation, and is inserted inLVAL} our National Covenant, which was approved by the king who lately reigned. As long, therefore, as his majesty who now reigns refuses to hearken to the just and necessary desires of State and Kirk propounded to his majesty for the security of religion and safety of his people, and to engage and to oblige himself for the performance of his duty to his people, it is consonant to Scripture and reason, and the laws of the kingdom, that they should refuse to admit him to the exercise of his government until he give satisfaction in these things.\par "3. In the League and Covenant which hath been so solemnly sworn and renewed by this kingdom, the duty of defending and preserving the king's majesty, person, and authority, is joined with, and subordinate unto, the duty of preserving and defending the true religion and liberties of the kingdoms; and therefore his majesty, standing in opposition to the just and necessary public desires concerning religion and the liberties of the kingdoms, it will a manifest breach of Covenant, and preferring of the king's interest to the interest of Jesus Christ, to bring him to the exercise of his royal powers which he \emdash walking in a contrary way, and being compassed about his malignant counsels, cannot but employ to the prejudice and ruin of both."\par The stipulation was made known to Charles while he was still in Holland, where he had been for some time residing, but he refused to accede to it. The following year (1650) he set sail for Scotland, and before landing on its shores he consented to subscribe the Covenant, and the test was accordingly administered to him with all due solemnity. On the following August he repeated an engagement to support the Covenant. Yet the unprincipled monarch was all the while devising schemes for the subversion not only of Presbyterianism, but even of Protestantism in Scotland. Again, when crowned at Scone on Jan. 1, 1651, Charles not only took oath to support and defend the Presbyterian Church of Scotland, but, the National CovenantLVAL~ and the Solemn League and Covenant having been produced and read, the king solemnly swore them. The imposing ceremonial, however, was only designed, on the part of the profligate Charles, to deceive his Scottish subjects. Nor did the calamities in which he was subsequently involved \emdash his dethronement and exile for several years in France \emdash produce any favorable change upon his character. No sooner was he restored to his throne in 1660, than he forthwith proceeded to overturn the whole work of reformation, both civil and ecclesiastical, which he had solemnly sworn to support. The first step towards the execution of this project was the passing of the Act of Supremacy, whereby the king was constituted supreme judge in all matters civil and ecclesiastical. To this was afterwards added the Oath of Allegiance, which declared it to be treason to deny the supremacy of the sovereign both in Church and State. The crowning deed of treachery, however, which Charles perpetrated, was his prevailing upon his Scottish counselors to pass the Act Rescissory, by which all the steps taken from 1638 to 1650 for the reformation of religion were pronounced rebellious and treasonable; the National Covenant and the Solemn League and Covenant were condemned as unlawful oaths; the Glasgow Assembly of 1638 was denounced as an illegal and seditious meeting; and the right government of the Church was alleged to be the inherent prerogative of the crown. The result of these acts was, that the advances which the Church and the country had made during the period of the Second Reformation were completely neutralized, and the Church of Scotland was subjected for a long series of years to the most cruel persecution and oppression. With such flagrant and repeated violations of the solemn compact into which Charles had entered with his subjects, it is not to be wondered at that, on high constitutional grounds, this body of the Covenanters, headed by Cameron, Cargill, and others, should have regarded the treacherous sovereigLVALn as having forfeited all title to their allegiance. They felt it to be impossible to maintain the principles of the Reformation, and yet own the authority of a monarch who had trampled these principles under foot, and that, too, in violation of the most solemn oaths, repeated again and again. The younger M'Crie, in his Sketches of Scottish Church History, alleges that the principle laid down by Cameron's party was, "that the king, by assuming an Erastian power over the Church, had forfeited all right to the civil obedience of his subjects-a principle which had never been known in the Church of Scotland before.' Such a view of the matter, however, is scarcely fair to the Cameronians. It was not because Charles had usurped an Erastian authority over the Church that they deemed it their duty to renounce their allegiance, but because he had broken the solemn vows made at his coronation. On that occasion he had entered, as they held, into a deliberate compact with his subjects, and yet, in the face of all his vows, he had openly, and in the most flagrant manner, broken that compact, thus setting his subjects free from all obligation to own him as king. It is quite true, as the Westminster Confession of Faith alleges, that "infidelity or difference in religion doth not make void the magistrate's just and legal authority, nor free the people from their due obedience to him;" but this remark does not meet the case as between Charles and the Cameronian party. They renounced their allegiance not because the sovereign was an infidel, or differed from them in matters of religion, but solely and exclusively because he had broken a civil compact entered into between him and his Scottish subjects on receiving the crown, and confirmed by a solemn religious vow. By his own deliberate deeds the traitorous monarch had forfeited his right to rule before they had renounced their obligation to obey. Such were the simple grounds on which Cameron, Cargill, Renwick, and their followers considered themselves justified in disoLVALwning the authority of the king, and bearing arms against him as a usurper of the throne and a traitor to the country.\par This earnest and intrepid band of Covenanters brought down upon themselves, by the fearless avowal of their principles, the special vengeance of the ruling powers. One after another their leaders perished on the scaffold, and thus the people who held Cameronian principles found themselves deprived of religious instructors, and wandering as "sheep without a shepherd." In these circumstances they resolved to form themselves into a united body, consisting of societies for worship and mutual edification, which were formed in those districts where the numbers warranted such a step. To preserve order and uniformity, the smaller societies appointed deputies to attend a general meeting, in which was vested the power of making arrangements for the regulation of the whole body. The first meeting of these united societies was held on Dec. 15, 1681, at Logan House, in the parish of Lesmahagow, Lanarkshire, where it was resolved to draw up a public testimony against the errors and defections of the times. The name which this body of Covenanters took to themselves was that of the "Persecuted Remnant," while the societies which they had formed for religious improvement led them to be designated the "Society People." "They had taken up no new principles," as Dr. Hetherington well remarks: "the utmost that they can be justly charged with is, merely that they had followed up the leading principles of the Presbyterian and Covenanted Church of Scotland to an extreme point, from which the greater part of Presbyterians recoiled; and that in doing so they had used language capable of being interpreted to mean more than they themselves intended. Their honesty of heart, integrity of purpose, and firmness of principle cannot be denied-and these are noble qualities; and if they did express their sentime